LIBRARY    OF    THE    THEOLOGICAL    SEMINARY 

PRINCETON,     N.    J. 
PRESENTED  BY 

MR-    EDWARD   L.    HO?/E 


BV  3415 

.B42 

1905 

Beach,  ] 

Harlan  Page, 

1854- 

1933, 

Dawn  on 

the 

hills  of 

T'ang 

>-/ 


k'ung  fu-tzu 

From  a  Rubbing  Representing  Confucius,  on  a  Slab  near 

His   Grave 


DAWN  ON  THE 
HILLS  OF  T ' ANG.-™- 


OR 


MISSIONS  IN  CHINAM££-r  f ^ 


BY 

HARLAN  P.  \BEACH,  M.A.,  F.R.G.S. 


REVISED  EDITION 


NEW  YORK 

STUDENT   VOLUNTEER   MOVEMENT 
FOR   FOREIGN   MISSIONS 

1905 


COPTKIGHT,   1898,   BT 

STUDENT  VOLUNTEER  MOVEMENT 
FOR  FOREIGN  MISSIONS 

COPTRIGHT,   1905,  BT 

STUDENT  VOLUNTEER  MOVEMENT 
FOR  FOREIGN  MISSIONS 


PREFACE 


This  little  volume  has  been  written  as  a  text-book 
for  voluntary  mission  study  classes  in  institutions  of 
higher  learning.  Such  a  use  calls  for  brevity,  and  at 
the  same  time  for  possibilities  of  further  reading  and 
study,  a  requirement  partly  met  by  the  readings 
suggested  for  each  chapter  in  the  Bibliography.  It 
also  accounts  for  peculiarities  of  typography,  such  as 
the  Clarendon  type  headings,  which  mark  the  main 
divisions  of  chapters,  and  the  numerals  and  words 
in  italics  found  in  the  minor  divisions.  Ten  years' 
supervision  of  such  classes  has  shown  their  value  as 
aids  in  preparing  teaching  outlines  and  questions,  as 
well  as  in  helping  the  student  to  see  at  a  glance  the 
subject  of  a  given  paragraph. 

When  it  is  remembered  that  this  series  of  text- 
books has  been  used  in  more  than  700  colleges,  uni- 
versities, etc.,  of  North  America  and  Europe,  and  by 
members  of  every  branch  of  the  Christian  Church, 
the  reader  will  not  expect  to  find  any  detailed  refer- 
ence to  the  work  of  individual  missionary  societies 
laboring  in  China.  The  main  items  can  be  found  in 
brief  form  in  Appendixes  C  and  D  and  in  the  Statis- 
tical Table  ;  for  further  information  the  publications 
of  the  various  societies  must  be  consulted. 

The  Romanization  of  Chinese  words  calls  for  ex- 
planation.    The  meaning  of  the  ideographs  used  in 


iv  PREFA  CE 


Chinese  writing  is  the  same  all  over  the  Empire,  but 
their  pronunciation  is  as  varied  as  are  the  equivalents 
in  various  European  languages  of  a  given  Arabic 
numeral.  Hence  literature  relating  to  China  is  a 
hopeless  sea  of  variant  spellings  of  Chinese  words,  in 
many  cases  the  same  writer  inconsistently  employing 
various  systems.  In  this  volume  the  Eomanization 
of  Sir  Thomas  Wade  is  used  throughout,  except  in 
place  names  that  have  become  very  widely  known  in 
an  earlier  Eomanization.  The  system  is  a  reproduc- 
tion of  sounds  of  the  Mandarin  form  of  the  language, 
which  is  familiar  to  more  than  two  hundred  millions. 
If  it  be  objected  that  Sir  Thomas  has  followed  in  the 
main  the  Peking  form  of  the  Mandarin  and  that  it 
would  be  better  to  use  the  Standard  System  of  Eo- 
manization, we  would  reply  that  Pekingese  is  to 
China  what  Parisian  is  to  France,  and  that  as  the 
Wade  system  is  used  increasingly  in  the  best  dic- 
tionaries and  text-books  in  the  language,  it  is  desir- 
able to  abide  by  it  here,  even  though  it  is  open  to 
criticism  on  phonological  and  other  grounds.  An 
approximately  correct  key  to  the  system  immediately 
precedes  Chapter  I.,  while  in  Appendix  D  a  simpler 
table  of  equivalents  is  given  in  connection  with  a  list 
of  all  the  mission  stations  in  China,  as  well  as  of  other 
Chinese  words  used  in  this  text-book.  So  far  as  the 
author  knows  the  literature,  this  greatly  needed  aid 
to  pronouncing  Chinese  words  is  more  complete  than 
any  other.  It  is  hoped  that  it  will  contribute  toward 
a  better  conception  of  Chinese  sounds,  even  if  there 
is  no  attempt  made  to  suggest  their  proper  tone,  or 
intonation. 


CONTENTS 

BiBLIOOKAPHT ▼" 

Ket  to  Pronounciation  of  Chikesb  Words,  .        .  iri 

I.   The  World  of  the  Chinese,        ....       1 

II.    China's  Inheritance  from  the  Past,  .        .         .15 

III.  "The  Real  Chinaman,"  .         .         .         .32 

IV.  Religions  of  the  Chinese,    .         .  .         .     62 
V.   Preparation  and  Beginnings,        .         .         .         .75 

VI,    The  Protestant  Occupation  of  China,       .         .     96 
VII.    The  Missionaries  at  Work,  .         .         .         .109 

VIII.    The  New  China, 127 

Appendix  A.     Provincial  Divisions,        ....  161 
Appendix  B.     Prominent  Events  of  the  Historic  Dy- 
nasties,          ^^^ 

Appendix  C.     List  of  Missionary   Societies  Laboring 

IN  China, 170 

Appendix  D.     Pronouncing  Index  of  Stations  and  of 

Chinese  Words  and  Names, 177 

Appendix   E.     Statistics    of    Missions    in    China    for 

1904, opposite  page  202 

General  Index, 203 


ILLUSTRATIONS 


FACING 
PAGE 


K'uNG  Fu-Tzu.  From  a  Rubbing  Representing  Con- 
fucius, ON  A  Slab  near  His  Grave  .  .  Frontispiece 
Image  of  Confucius,  Yo  Lo  College,  Ch*an6}-sha  .  20 
The  White  Deer  College  of  Chu  Fu-tzu  ...  20 
Examination  Hall  and  Stalls  at  Nanking,  Accom- 
modating 30,000  Candidates  for  Degrees  .  .  36 
Family  Ancestral  Tablets  in  a  Chinese  Home        .     54 

A  Group  of  Chinese  Officials 54 

Buddhist  Temple,  South  China 88 

Bronze  Astronomical  Instruments  made  by  Jesuits    88 
Oldest  Church  Building  for  Native  Christians  in 

China 104 

Pastor  of  above  Church  and  His  Wife      .        .        .   104 
Rev.   Henry  Blodget,   D.D.     A  Pioneer  in  North 

China 106 

Rev.  Virgil  C.  Hart,  D.D.,  F.R.G.S.     A  Pioneer  in 

West  China 106 

General  Hospital,  Chung-ch'ing 110 

Hope  Hospital,  Amoy 110 

Yen  Hall,  St.  John's  College,  Shanghai  .  .  .114 
Main  Building,  Su-chou  University  .  .  .  .114 
The  Late  Viceroy  Li  Hung-chang  ....  136 
Prince  Su,  Foreigners'  Friend  during  the  Siege  .  136 
Memorial  to  Oberlin  Martyrs  in  Shan-hsi,  Erect- 
ed at  Entrance  to  Oberlin  College  Campus  .  140 
Tablet  to  the  Memory  of  Horace  Tracy  Pitkin  at 

Yale 160 

Map  of  China At  End 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


ADDITIONAL  READINGS  FOR  CHAPTER  I. 

Barnes,  I.  H.     Behind  the  Great  Wall  (1896),  ch.  I. 

CuNNYNGHAM,  W.  G.  E.  Young  People's  History  of  the 
Chinese  (1896),  ch.  II. 

CuRZON,  G.  N.     Problems  of  the  Far  East  (1896),  ch.  VIII. 

Davis,  J.  F.     The  Chinese  (1851),  vol.  I.,  ch.  V. 

Encyclopaedia  of  Missions  (1891  and  1904).     Article,  China. 

General  Encyclopaedias.     Article,  China. 

GoRST,  H.  E.     China  (1899),  ch.  II. 

Graham,  J.  M.     East  of  the  Barrier  (1902),  ch.  I. 

Gray,  J.  H.     China  (1878),  vol.  I.,  ch.  I.;  vol.  II.,  ch.  XXXII. 

Hart,  V.  C.     Western  China  (1888),  chs.  VI.-XIII. 

Henry,  B.  C.     Ling-nam  (1886).     Especially  ch.  XXVII. 

HosiE,  A.     Manchuria  (1900),  chs.  I.,  V.,  VII.,  VIII. 

Keane,  a.  H.     Asia  (1896),  vol.  I.,  pp.  245-361. 

Kleine  Missions-Bibliothek  (1880),  vol.  III.,  pt.  III.,  pp.  1-13. 

Mill,  H.  R.,  Editor.  The  International  Geography  (1900), 
pp.  521-542. 

Morris,  T.  M.     A  Winter  in  North  China  (1892),  ch.  VII. 

Nevius,  J.  L.     China  and  the  Chinese  (1882),  ch.  I. 

Nouveau  Dictionnaire  de  Geographic  Universelle  (1897). 
Article,  Chine. 

Parker,  E.  H.  China,  Her  History,  Diplomacy,  and  Com- 
merce (1901),  ch.  I. 

RocKHiLL,  W.  W.  The  Land  of  the  Lamas  (1891),  chs.  I., 
II.,  VII. 

Smith,  A.  H.     Rex  Christus  (1903),  ch.  I. 

Thomson,  J.     Through  China  with  a  Camera  (1898). 

Williams,  S.  W.    Middle  Kingdom  (1882),  vol.  L,  chs.  I.-III. 

Williamson,  A.  Journeys  in  North  China  (1870),  vol.  IL, 
ch.  IL 

Wilson,  J.  H.     China  (1894),  chs.  III.-V. 

ADDITIONAL  READINGS  FOR  CHAPTER  IL 

Boughton,  W.     History  of  Ancient  Peoples  (1897),  pt.  IL, 

ch.  IL 
Boulger,  D.  C.     a  Short  History  of  China  (1893). 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


Davis,  J.  F.     Sketches  of  China  (1845),  ch.  IX. 
The  Chinese  (1851),  vol.  I.,  ch.  VI. 

De  Lacouperie,  T.     Western  Origin  of  the  Early  Chinese 
Civilization  (1894),  chs.  II.,  III. 

Douglas,  R.  K.     China  (1882),  ch.  I. 

Encyclopaedia  of  Missions  (1891),  vol.  I.,  pp.  251,  252. 

Faber,  E.     China  in  the  Light  of  History  (1897). 

Chronological  Handbook  of  the  History  of  China  (1902). 

Fergusson,  T.     Chinese  Researches  (1880),  pt.  I.,  ch.  I. 

General  Encyclopaedias.     Article,  China. 

Gibson,  J.   C.     Mission  Problems  and  Mission  Methods  in 
South  China  (1901),  pp.  15-32. 

GoRST,  H.  E.     China  (1899),  chs.  IV.,  V. 

Kleine  Missions-Bibliothek   (1880),   vol.    III.,   pt.   III.,   pp. 
15-27. 

Legge,  J.     The  Chinese  Classics  (1865),  vol.  III.,  pt.  I.,  ch.  V. 

Macgowan,  J.     History  of  China  (1897). 

Martin,  W.  A.  P.     The  Lore  of  Cathay  (1901),  Book  V. 

Mayers,  AV.  F.     Chinese  Reader's  Manual  (1874). 

Medhurst,  W.  H.     China:  Its  State  and  Prospects  (1838), 
ch.  I. 

Moule,  a.  E.     New  China  and  Old  (1892),  ch.  I. 

Parker,  E.  H.     China,  Her  History,  Diplomacy,  and  Com- 
merce (1901),  ch.  II. 

Pott,  F.  L.  H.     A  Sketch  of  Chinese  History  (1903). 

WiLDMAN,  R.     China's  Open  Door  (1900),  chs.  II.-X. 

Williams,  H.  S.,  Editor.     The  Historians'  History  of  the 
World  (1904),  vol.  XXIV.,  pp.  542-554. 

Williams,  S.  W.     Middle  Kingdom  (1882),  vol.  II.,  ch.  XVII. 

Williams,  S.  W.  and  F.  W.     History  of  China  (1897). 


ADDITIONAL  READINGS  FOR  CHAPTER  III. 

Ball,  J.  D.     Things  Chinese  (1893),  pp.  91-101. 
Bryson,  M.  I.     Home  Life  in  China  (n.  d.). 
CocKBURN,  G.     John  Chinaman  (1896). 
CoLQUHOUN,  A.  R.     China  in  Transformation  (1898),  ch.  X. 
Davis,  J.  A.     Choh  Lin  (1884),  chs.  I.-XI. 
Davis,  J.  F.     Sketches  of  China  (1845),  ch.  XV. 
DooLiTTLE,  J.     Social  Life  of  the  Chinese  (1865). 
Douglas,  R.  K.     China  (1882). 

Society  in  China  (1894). 
Dukes,  E.  J.     Along  River  and  Road  in  Fuh-kien  (n.  d.),  chs. 

IV.,  V. 
Encyclopaedia  of  Missions  (1891  and  1904).     Article,  China. 
Fielde,  a.  M.     a  Corner  of  Cathay  (1894). 

Pagoda  Shadows  (1884). 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  ix 

General  Encyclopaedias.     Article,  China. 

Giles,   H.   A.     China    and    the    Chinese    (1902),   lects.  I., 

III.,  VI. 
Graham,  J.  M.     East  of  the  Barrier  (1902),  ch.  II. 
Gray,  J.  H.     China  (1S78). 

Henry,  B.  C.     The  Cross  and  the  Dragon  (1885),  ch.  III. 
HoLcoMBE,  C.     The  Real  Chinaman  (1895). 

The  Real  Chinese  Question  (1900),  chs.  II.,  IV. 
HosiE,  A.     Three  Years  in  Western  China  (1889),  ch.  XIII. 
Houghton,  R.  C.     Women  of  the  Orient  (1877),  chs.  V., 

VIII. 
Keane,  a.  H.     Asia  (1896),  vol.  I.,  pp.  361-383,  432-439. 
Macgowan,  J.     Pictures  of  Southern  China  (1897),  pp.  316- 

320. 
McNabb,  R.  L.     The  Women  of  the  Middle  Kingdom  (1903). 
March,  D.     Morning  Light  in  Many  Lands  (1891),  chs.  X., 

XI. 
Medhurst,  W.   H.     The  Foreigner  in  Far  Cathay  (1873), 

especially  chs.  XII.,  XVIII. 
Mission  Stories  of  Many  Lands  (1885),  pp.  173-219. 
Moule,  a.  E.     New  China  and  Old  (1892),  chs.  IV.,  V. 
Nevius,  J.  L.     China  and  the  Chinese  (1882),  chs.  II.,  XVII., 

XIX. 
Parker,  E.  H.     China,  Her  History,  Diplomacy,  and  Com- 
merce (1901),  ch.  XIV. 
Selby,  T.   G.     Chinamen  at  Home   (n.  d.),  especially  chs. 

I.-VI. 
Smith,  A.  H.     Chinese  Characteristics  (1894). 

Proverbs  and  Common  Sayings  of  the  Chinese  (1888). 
Village  Life  in  China  (1899). 
Williams,  H.  S.,  Editor.     The  Historians'  History  of  the 

World  (1904),  vol.  XXIV.,  pp.  531-541. 
Williams,  S.  W.     Middle  Kingdom  (1882,)  vol.  I.,  chs.  V., 

VII.,  IX.,  XIIL,  XIV. 
Wylie,  a.     Notes  on  Chinese  Literature  (1867),  pp.  i.-xiii. 


ADDITIONAL  READINGS  FOR  CHAPTER  IV. 

Barrows,  J.  H.,  Editor.  World's  Parliament  of  Religions 
(1893),  vol.  I.,  pp.  374-439;  vol.  II.,  pp.  1355-1358. 

Beal,  S.     Buddhism  in  China  (1884.) 

Bettany,  G.  T.     The  World's  Religions  (1891),  pp.  102-166. 

Carus,   p.     Lao-Tze's  Tao-Teh-King   (1898). 

China  Mission  Hand-Book  (1896),  pt.  I.,  pp.  1-31. 

Davids,  T.  W.  R.     Buddhism  (1890),  chs.  VIIL,  IX. 

Doolittle,  J.  Social  Life  of  the  Chinese  (1865),  vol.  I., 
chs.  VIIL,  XL,  XIV, 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


Douglas,  R.  K.     Confucianism  and  Taouism  (1889). 

Du  BosE,  H.  C.     The  Dragon,  Image,  and  Demon  (1886). 

Edkins,  J.     Early  Spread  of  Religious  Ideas  (1893),  chs.  V.- 
VII. 

Ellinwood,    F.    F.     Oriental    Religions    and    Christianity 
(1892),  lect.  VII. 

Encyclopaedia  of  Missions  (1891  and  1904).     Articles,  Con- 
fucianism, Taoism. 

Faber,  E.     The  Mind  of  Mencius  (1897).  ^ 

General  Encyclopaedias.     Articles,  Confucius,  Confucianism, 
Taoism. 

Gibson,  J.  C.     Mission  Problems  and  Mission  Methods  in 
South  China  (1901),  chs.  III.,  IV. 

Grant,  G.  M.     Religions  of  the  World  in  Relation  to  Chris- 
tianity (1894),  ch.  III. 

Gray,  J.  H.     China  (1878),  vol.  I.,  chs.  IV.,  V. 

Henry,  B.  C.     The  Cross  and  the  Dragon  (1885),  chs.  IV.- 
VII. 

HoLCOMBE,  C.     The  Real  Chinaman  (1895),  chs.  VI.,  VII. 

Hue,  E.  R.     A  Journey  through  the  Chinese  Empire  (n.  d.), 
vol.  II.,  ch.  VI. 

Jevons,  F.  B.     Introduction  to  the  History  of  Religion  (1896), 
see  China  in  Index. 

Legge,  J.     Chinese  Classics,  Translated  into  English  (1887), 
vols.  I.,  II. 

Chinese  Classics  (with  Chinese  text)  (1893),  vol.  I.,  the 

Prolegomena;  vol.  II.,  the  Prolegomena. 
Religions  of  China  (1881). 

Sacred  Books  of  the  East,  the  Texts  of  Taoism  (1891), 
especially  vol.  I.,  pp.  1-44. 

Martin,  W.  A.  P.     The  Lore  of  Cathay  (1901),  Book  III. 

Matheson,  G.     Distinctive  Messages  of  the  Old  Religions 
(1894),  ch.  III. 

Menzies,  a.     History  of  Religion  (1895),  ch.  VIII. 

MouLE,  A.  E.     New  China  and  Old  (1892),  chs.  VI.,  VIII. 

Nevius,  J.  L.     China    and  the    Chinese   (1882),  chs.  III., 
VI.-XII. 

Present  Day  Tracts— Non-Christian  Religions  (1887),  Chris- 
tianity and  Confucianism. 

Progress  for  October,  1897,  pp.  103-107,  112-150. 

Records  of  the  Missionary  Conference,  Shanghai,  1877,  pp. 
62-75,  367-387. 

Scott,  A.     Buddhism  and  Christianity  (1890),  lect.  VI. 

Selby,  T.  G.     Chinamen  at  Home  (1900),  ch.  IV. 

Smith,  A.  H.     Rex  Christus  (1903),  ch.  II. 

Williams,  H.  S.,  Editor.     The   Historians'  History  of  the 
World  (1904),  vol.  XXIV.,  pp.  525-530. 

Williams,  S.  W.     Middle  Kingdom  (1882),  vol.  II.,  pp.  188- 
266. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


ADDITIONAL  READINGS  FOR  CHAPTER  V. 

Arnold,  T.  W.     The  Preaching  of  Islam  (1896),  ch.  X. 
Ball,  J.  D.     Things  Chinese  (1893),  pp.  294-299;  419-430. 
Baumgarten,  p.  M,     Das  Wirken  der   katholischen  Kirche 

auf  dem  Erdenrund  (1902),  pp.  40-42,  256-261. 
China  Mission  Hand-Book  (1896),  pt.  I.,  pp.  31-45. 
Davis,  J.  F.     The  Chinese  (1851),  vol.  I.,  ch.  I. 
DooLiTTLE,  J.     Social  Life  of  the  Chinese  (1865),  vol.  II., 

pp.  394-403. 
Encyclopaedia  of  Missions  (1891),  vol.  L,  pp.  264,  265. 
Haines,  C.  R.     Islam,  as  a  Missionary  Religion  (1889),  ch. 

VI. 
Hue,  E.  R.     Christianity  in  China  (1857). 
Marshall,  T.  W.  M.     Christian  Missions  (1863),  sections  on 

China. 
Martin,  W.  A.  P.     A  Cycle  of  Cathay  (1896),  pt.  II.,  ch.  IV. 

The  Chinese  (1881),  pp.  287-306. 
MiGNE,    L'Abbe.     Dictionnaire    des    Missions    Catholiques 

(1864),  pp.  330-383. 
Neander,  a.     General  History  of  the  Christian  Religion  and 

Church  (1871),  vol.  IV.,  pp.  45-59. 
Nevius,  J.  L.     China  and  the  Chinese  (1882),  ch.  XXVI. 
Piglet,  J.  B.     Les  Missions  Catholiques  Fran9aises  au  XIX*. 

Siecle  (1901),  vol.  III.,  chs.  I.-VII. 
Records    of   the    Missionary   Conference,    Shanghai    (1890), 

pp.  196-202. 
Williams,  S.  W.     Middle  Kingdom  (1882),  vol.  II.,  pp.  266- 

318. 

ADDITIONAL  READINGS  FOR  CHAPTER  VI. 

Berry,  D.  M.     The  Sister  Martyrs  of  Ku  Cheng  (n.  d.),  ch. 

XXII. 
Bliss,  E.  M.     Concise  History  of  Missions  (1897),  pt.  II,, 

ch.  VI. 
Butler,  W.  F.     Charles  George  Gordon  (1889),  ch.  III. 
Centenary  Conference  on  Foreign  Missions,  London,  1888, 

vol.  I.,  pp.  220-238. 
China  Mission  Hand-Book  (1896),  pt.  II. 
Cobb,  H.  N.     Far  Hence  (1893),  chs.  XX.-XXVII. 
Creegan,  C.  C.     Great  Missionaries  of  the  Church  (1895), 

chs.  VL,  VII. 
Encyclopaedia  of  Missions  (1891),  vol.  I.,  pp.  265-271;  (1904 

edition),  pp.   151,  152. 
Fagg,  J.  G.     Forty  Years  in  South  China  (1894),  chs.  V.,  XL 
Graham,    J.    A.     Missionary   Expansion   of   the   Reformed 

Churches  (1898),  pp.  139-160. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


Guinness,  M,  G.     Story  of  the  China  Inland  Mission  (1894), 
GuNDERT,  H.     Die  evangehsche  Mission  (1894),  pp.  334-355 
Henry,  B.  C.     The  Cross  and  the  Dragon  (1885),  ch.  IX. 
HoLCOMBE,  C.     The  Real  Chinese  Question  (1900),  ch.  IX. 
HoRNE,  C.  S.     Story  of  the  L.  M.  S.,  1795-1895  (1895),  ch.  V 
In  Lands  Afar  (1897),  pp.  207-264. 
Lawrence,  E.  A.     Modern  Missions  in  the  East  (1894),  pp 

57-70. 
Lenker,  J.  N.     Lutherans  in  all  Lands  (1893),  vol.  I.,  pp 

639-644. 
Leonard,  D.  L.     A  Hundred  Years  of  Missions  (1895),  pp 

307-332. 
Lovett,  R.     James  Gilmour  of  Mongolia  (1893),  ch.  II. 
Mabie,  H.  C.     In  Brightest  Asia  (1891),  chs.  V.-XII. 
MacCracken  and  Piper.     Leaders  of  Our  Church  Universal 

(1878).     Life  XXXVI. 
McLean,  A.     Circuit  of  the  Globe  (1897),  chs.  XIX.-XXIX. 
MouLE,  A.  E.     New  China  and  Old  (1892),  ch.  X. 
Nevius,  J.  L.     China  and  the  Chinese  (1882),  pp.  300-331. 
Reid  and  Gracey,     Missions  and  Missionary  Society  of  the 

Methodist  Episcopal  Church  (1895),  vol.  L,  pp.  409-485; 

vol.  IL,  pp.  9-177. 
Reports  of  the  Boards  of  Missions  of  the  Provinces  of  Canter- 
bury and  York  on  the  Mission  Field  (1894),  pp.  260-283. 
RoBSON,  W.     Griffith  John  (n.  d.). 
Speer,  R.  E.     Missions  and  Modern  History  (1904),  vol.  I., 

ch.  I. 
Stacy,  T.  H.     In  the  Path  of  Light  Around  the  World  (1895), 

chs.  VI.-VIII. 
Stevens  and  Markwick.     The  Life  of  Peter  Parker,  M.  D. 

(1896),  chs.  VIII.,  IX.,  XIV.,  XV. 
TowNSEND,  W.  J.     Robert  Morrison  (n.  d.),  especially  ch.  X. 
Walsh,  W.  P.     Modern  Heroes  of  the  Mission  Field  (1881), 

ch.  IV. 
Warneck,  G.     Outline  of  a  History  of  Protestant  Missions 

(1901),  pp.  294-305. 
Williams,   F.  W.     Life  and  Letters  of  S.  Wells  Williams 

(1888),  especially  chs.   III.-X. 
Williams,  S.  W.     Middle  Kingdom  (1882),  vol.  IL,  pp.  318- 

371,  chs.  XXII.,  XXVL 
Young,  R.     Modern  Missions,  Their  Trials    and    Triumphs 

(1884),  pp.  100-138. 

ADDITIONAL  READINGS  FOR  CHAPTER  VII. 

Bainbridge,  W.  F.     Around  the  World  Tour  of  Christian 

Missions  (1882). 
Brown,  A.  J.    New  Forces  in  Old  China  (1904),  pt.  IV. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


Bryson,  M.   I.     Fred  C.  Roberts  of  Tientsin  (1895),  chs. 

VII.-XII. 

John  Kenneth  Mackenzie  (n.  d.). 
Centenary  Conference  on  Foreign  Missions,  London,   1888, 

vol.  II.,  pp.  266-272,  308-315. 
CoLTMAN,  R.     The  Chinese  (1891),  chs.  VIII.-X. 
Gumming,  C.  F.  G.     Wanderings  in  China  (1888),  chs.  VIII., 

XII.,  XXXV.,  XXXVIII. 
Du  BosE,  H.  C.     Preaching  m  Sinim  (1893),  chs.  IV.,  V., 

VIII.-XII. 
Dudgeon,  J.     The  Diseases  of  China  (1877). 
Dukes,  E.  J.     Along  River  and  Road  in  Fuh-kien  (n.  d.), 

chs.  VI.,  IX.,  XII.,  XIII. 
Gibson,  J.  C.     Mission  Problems  and  Mission  Methods  in 

South  China  (1901),  chs.  VI.-XI. 
Henry,  B.  C.     The  Cross  and  the  Dragon  (1885),  chs.  XII.- 

XXI. 
HoDDER,  E.     Conquests  of  the  Cross  (n.  d.),  see  Index  in  vol. 

III. 
Johnston,  J.     China  and  Formosa  (1897),  ch.  XIX. 
Lewis,  R.  E.     Educational  Conquest  of  the  Far  East  (1903), 

chs.  XI.-XIX. 
LocKHART,  W.     The  Medical  Missionary  in  China  (1861), 

chs.  VI.-IX. 
Lowe,  J.     Medical  Missions  (1887),  ch.  V. 
Mears,  W.  p.     Preservation  of  Health  in  the  Far  East  (1895). 
Mission  Press  in  China  (1895). 
Nevius,  H.  S.  C.     Life  of  John  Livingstone  Nevius  (1895), 

especially  ch.  XXXV. 
Nevius,  J.  L.     China  and  the  Chinese  (1882),  chs.  XXII.- 

XXV. 

Methods  of  Mission  Work  (1895). 
Records  of  the  Missionary  Conference,  Shanghai,  1877. 
Records  of  the  Missionary  Conference,  Shanghai,  1890. 
Ross,  J.     Mission  Methods  in  Manchuria  (1903). 
Selby,  T.  G.     Chinamen  at  Home  (1900),  chs.  VII.-IX. 
Spottiswoode,  G.  a.     Missionary  Conference  of  the  Anglican 

Communion  (1894),  pp.  213-221. 
Stevens  and  Markwick.     The  Life  of  Peter  Parker,  M.  D. 

(1896),  ch.  VIII. 
Stott,  G.     Twenty-six  Years  of  Missionary  Work  in  China 

(1897). 
Taylor,  Mrs.  F.  H.     Pastor  Hsi,  One  of  China's  Christians 

(1903). 
Williamson,  I.     Old  Highways  in  China  (n.  d.). 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


ADDITIONAL   READINGS    FOR   CHAPTER    VIII. 

Beach,   H.   P.     Princely  Men  of  the   Heavenly  Kingdom 

(1903),  ch.  VI. 
Beresford,  C.     The  Break-up  of  China  (1899),  especially 

ch.  XXX. 
Bishop,  Mrs.  J.  F.     The  Yangtze  Valley  and  Beyond  (1900), 

vol.  II.,  ch.  XXXIX. 
Broomhall,  M.     Martyred  Missionaries  of  the  China  Inland 

Mission  (1901),  especially  pp.  3-14. 
Brown,  A.  J.     New  Forces  in  Old  China  (1904),  pts.  II.-V. 
Chang,  Chih-tung.     China's  Only  Hope  (1900). 
CoLQUHOUN,  A.  R.     China  in  Transformation  (1898),  ch.  XI. 

Overland  to  China  (1900),  ch.  XX. 
Edwards,  E.  H.     Fire  and  Sword  in  Shansi  (n.  d.). 
Forsyth,  R.  C.     The  China  Martyrs  of  1900  (n.  d.),  especially 

chs.  I.,  XXII. 
Foster,  J.  W.     American  Diplomacy  in  the  Orient  (1903), 

pp.  408-438. 
GoRST,  H.  E.     China  (1899),  chs.  XXII.,  XXVI. 
Graham,  J.  M.     East  of  the  Barrier  (1902),  chs.  X.-XIII. 
Headland,  I.  T.     Chinese  Heroes  (1902). 
HoLCOMBE,  C.     The  Real  Chinese  Question  (1900),  chs.  VI., 

X.-XII. 
Ketler,  I.  C.     The  Tragedy  of  Paotingfu  (1902). 
Mateer,  a.  H.     Siege  Days  (1903),  especially  pp.  13-26. 
Miner,  L.     China's  Book  of  Martyrs  (1903),  especially  In- 
troduction. 
Pott,  F.  L.  H.     The  Outbreak  in  China  (1903). 
Roberts,  J.  H.     A  Flight  for    Life  (1903),  especially  chs. 

I.,  IL 
Smith,  A.  H.     China  in  Convulsion  (1901),  especially  chs. 

I.-XIIL,  XXXII.-XXXVIII. 
Rex  Christus  (1903),  chs.  V.,  VI. 
Smyth,  G.  B.,  and  others.     The  Crisis  in  China  (1900). 
Speer,  R.  E.     a  Memorial  of  Horace  Tracy  Pitkin  (1903). 
Missionary  Principles  and  Practice  (1902),  chs.  XIII.- 

XIX.,  XXXV. 
Missions  and  Modem  History  (1904),  vol.  IL,  ch.  XL 
Wildman,  R.     China's  Open  Door  (1900),  ch.  XIV. 
Williams,  H.  S.,  Editor.     The  Historians'  History  of  the 

World  (1904),  vol.  XXIV.,  pp.  558-578. 
World-wide    Evangelization — Toronto    Convention    Report 

(1902),  pp.  325-351. 


KEY    TO    PEONUl^CIATION    OP    CHINESE 
WOEDS 

The  system  of  Romanizing  Chinese  words  followed  in  this 
book  is  that  of  Sir  Thomas  Wade  as  adapted  to  the  Mandarin  of 
Peking.  While  it  is  impossible  to  accurately  pronounce  Peking- 
ese without  the  aid  of  a  native,  and  though  it  would  be  useless 
to  pronounce  accurately  in  China,  if  the  tones  were  not  acquired 
— as  is  still  more  impossible  without  a  teacher — an  approxima- 
tion is  here  offered  that  the  prevalent  atrocious  pronunciation  of 
Western  lands  may  be  modified  and  that  a  correct  Chinese  pro- 
nunciation may  be  more  nearly  attained.  Only  those  letters  and 
combinations  of  letters  occasioning  difficulty  are  given ;  others 
are  pronounced  as  in  English.  We  would  repeat  that  the  sug- 
gestions here  made  will  only  enable  the  reader  to  gain  an  ap- 
proximate pronunciation  of  the  Peking  Mandarin,  the  Parisian 
of  China.  Only  English  equivalents  or  partial  equivalents  are 
given.  Those  who  would  gain  a  more  accurate  idea  of  Chinese 
pronunciation  are  referred  to  Wade  and  HilUer's  "  Tzu  £rh 
ChL" 


a  as  in  father. 
ai  as  in  aisle. 
ao  as  ow  in  now. 

*  ch  as  J  injax. 
ch*  as  in  cAange. 
i  as  in  perch. 

e  in  eh^  en^  as  in  yet,  when. 
ei  as  ey  in  whey. 

*  hs  as  hss  in  hissing^  when  the 
first  i  is  omitted. 

i  as  in  machine,  when  it  stands 

alone  or  at  the  end  of  a  word, 
i  as  in  pin,  when  before  n  and  ng. 
ia  as  eo  in  geology. 
iao  as  e  ou  in  me  out. 
ie  as  in  siesta. 

*  ih  as  er  in  over. 

iu  as  eu  in  Jehw,  when  h  is  omit- 
ted. 
*j  as  the  first  r  in  regular. 

*  A;  as  AT  in  g&me. 
k'  as  k. 


ng  as  m  amg. 

*  0  as  oa  in  boa-constrictor. 
OM  as  in  tlio?<gh. 

*p  as  6. 

p'  asp. 

rh  as  rr  in  bum 

ss  as  in  hiss. 

*t  SiB  d. 

t'  as  t. 

*  ts  as  ds  in  pa.dt. 
<s'  as  in  ca,ts. 

*  tz  as  ds  in  -pads, 
tz*'  as  ts  in  cais. 

u  as  00  in  too. 

ua  as  oe  o  in  shoe  on. 

uai  as  o  ey  in  two  eyen. 

uei  as  way. 

ui  as  ewy  in  Bcrewy. 

*  it  as  final  a  in  America. 

*  ii  as  French  u  or  German  u. 

*  ua  as  French  w  plus  a  in  an. 

*  ue  as  French  u  plus  e  in  yet. 


♦Those  thus  marked  have  no  close  English  equivalents.  Conso- 
nants followed  by  an  aspirate  ( ')  are  almost  like  the  same  in  English ; 
the  same  consonants  without  the  aspirate  are  more  diflScult  to  cor- 
irectly  pronounce. 


XTl 


DAWN  ON  THE  HILLS  OF  T'ANG 


THE  WORLD  OF  THE  CHINESE 

Scope  of  the  Text-book.— The  first  missionaries 
to  China,  men  of  the  Buddhist  faith,  called  the  land 
Chin-tan,  or  Dawn.  Centuries  later,  when  the  rulers 
of  the  T^ang  dynasty  had  made  the  Empire  the  most 
polished  nation  of  the  world,  the  Hills  of  T'ang  be- 
came the  popular  name  for  the  whole  land,  a  desig- 
nation still  frequently  used  in  regions  south  of  the 
Yang-tzii  Kiang.  This  little  volume  does  not  pre- 
tend to  discuss  fully  either  the  land  or  the  people  of 
China.  All  that  is  attempted  is  to  furnish  a  glimpse 
of  the  hills  and  men  of  T^ang,  and  to  sketch,  m  out- 
line, the  Christian  dawn  as  it  is  touching  mountain 
and  plain,  city  and  hamlet,  throughout  this  most  pop- 
ulous empire.  It  should  further  be  stated  that,  in- 
asmuch as  there  is  so  little  missionary  work  attempted 
among  the  sparsely  settled  Chinese  dependencies, 
attention  will  be  restricted  to  missions  within  China 
Proper,  Sheng-ching,  in  southern  Manchuria,  being 
regarded  as  a  Chinese  province. 

**  What's  in  a  Name  ?  "—Of  ten  thousand  Chi- 
nese hearing  the  word  China,  probably  not  more  than 
one  would  have  any  idea  that  it  referred  to  his  native 
country.  Their  own  names  for  the  Empire  and  the 
designations  by  which  it  has  been  known  m  history 
demand  a  moment's  attention.  ,.   ^    ,      ,,.     ,     ;, 

1.  Early  occidental  names  applied  to  this  lana 
seem  to  have  varied  according  to  the  direction  from 


DAWN  ON  THE  HILLS  OF  TANG 


which  it  was  approached.  When  reached  by  the 
northern  land  route,  it  was  known  to  the  ancients 
as  Seres,  and  to  the  Middle  Ages  as  Cathay.  The 
Latin  word  Seres  may  have  been  derived  from  the 
Chinese  character  for  silk,  ssu,  and  seems  to  have 
come  into  nse  in  the  Han  dynasty,  as  it  was  a  name 
familiar  to  the  Augustan  poets.  Cathay,  the  mediae- 
val designation,  is  from  Khitan,  a  race  of  Tartar  con- 
querors, who  subjugated  the  northern  provinces  dur- 
ing the  tenth  and  eleventh  centuries,  and  thus  gave 
to  North  China  the  name  Khitdi. 

Travellers  by  the  southern  sea  route  knew  the  Em- 
ire,  or  its  people,  by  the  terms  Sin,  Sinae,  Chin, 
hina,  and  Tsinistae.  The  occurrence  of  the  name 
China  in  the  Laws  of  Manu  and  the  Mahdbharata 
may  indicate  that  the  Hindus  had  intercourse  with 
the  Chinese  at  an  early  period,  though  other  peoples 
may  have  been  referred  to  under  this  name.  The 
apparently  cognate  Hebrew  word  Sinim  (Isaiah 
xlix.  12)  is  regarded  by  many  exegetes  as  referring  to 
China.  It  is  probable  that  this  group  of  names  finds 
its  origin  in  the  dynastic  appellation  of  Ts^in  or 
Ch*in,  a  family  which,  in  221  B.C.,  subdued  all 
China.  This  sept  had  been  powerful  from  its  rise, 
more  than  six  centuries  earlier,  especially  in  the 
western  half  of  the  country. 

2.  Native  appellations  are  various.  Hua  Hsia,  Flow- 
ery Hsia,  T'ang  Shan,  Hills  of  T'ang,  and  Ta  ChHng 
Kuo,  Great  Pure  Kingdom,  are  phrases  derived  from 
celebrated  dynasties  of  the  past  and  present,  while 
the  commonest  name,  Chung  Kuo,  Middle  Kingdom, 
points  back  to  the  time,  more  than  3,000  years  ago, 
when  the  Chou  dynasty  called  the  royal  domain — 
located  in  modern  Ho-nan  —  by  that  name,  because 
it  was  in  the  centre  surrounded  by  its  feudal  states. 
8su  Hai,  [all  within]  the  Four  Seas,  and  T  Hen  Hsia, 
Beneath  the  Sky,  are  very  ancient  appellations,  while 
Chin-tan,  Dawn,  and  Tu7ig  T'u,  Land  of  the  East — 
a  Mohammedan  name — are  of  comparatively  recent 
date.     Our  phrase,  the  Celestials,  comes  from  THen 


THE  WORLD  OF  THE  CHINESE 


Ch^ao,  Heavenly  Dynasty,  meaning  the  kingdom 
which  is  ruled  over  by  the  dynasty  appointed  by 
Heaven.  Chu7ig  Hua  Kuo,  Middle  Flowery  King- 
dom, does  not  so  much  refer  to  a  land  of  flowers  as 
to  the  fact  that  the  Chinese  regard  themselves  as 
among  the  most  polished  and  civilized  of  nations 
(cf.  our  word  flowery  in  its  rhetorical  sense). 

China's  Place  in  Asia. — A  glance  at  the  map 
will  show  the  favorable  position  occupied  by  the 
Empire.  To  the  north  lies  comparatively  barren  and 
largely  frigid  Siberia.  To  the  west  and  southwest 
are  the  dry  regions  of  Central  Asia,  Afghanistan, 
Baluchistan,  Persia,  and  Arabia.  India  and  south- 
eastern Asia  are  fruitful  and  populous,  but  their  in- 
habitants are  subject  to  the  enervating  influences  of 
the  tropics,  while  the  Asiatic  lands  of  the  Bible  are 
less  favored  than  is  China.  Japan  and  Formosa  and 
portions  of  Korea  are  as  fortunately  located  as  she, 
but  are  of  very  limited  extent.  What  is  the  signifi- 
cance of  China's  natural  advantages  as  they  affect 
Asia  ?  With  a  sea-coast  upward  of  2,000  miles  in 
length,  with  a  soil  of  remarkable  fertility,  open  to  the 
ocean  winds  and  watered  by  noble  rivers,  with  a  terri- 
tory lying  almost  entirely  within  the  temperate  zone, 
and  containing  beneath  its  surface  mineral  wealth  of 
untold  value,  China  has  not  only  been  able  to  maintain 
a  large  population  during  past  millenniums,  but  in  all 
probability  she  is  also  destined  to  be  in  the  future 
the  home  of  Asian's  most  numerous  and  influential  in- 
habitants. 

Areas  with  Some  Comparisons. — Owing  to  un- 
certainty as  to  a  portion  of  its  boundary  and  to  in- 
adequate surveys,  areas  are  only  approximate  ;  conse- 
quently the  estimates  of  different  authorities  greatly 
vary. 

1.  According  to  the  **  Statesman's  Year-Book, 
1904,''  *  the  area  of  the  Empire — including  China 

*  Unless  otherwise  stated,  the  statistics  of  population  and 
areas  contained  in  this  chapter  are  taken  from  this  standard 
work. 


DAWN  ON  THE  HILLS  OF  TANG 


Proper,  and  its  dependencies,  Mancliuria,  Mongolia, 
Tibet,  Jungaria,  and  East  Turkestan — is  4,277,170 
square  miles.  It  is  thus  equal  to  that  of  the  United 
States,  the  provinces  of  Ontario  and  Quebec  and  all  of 
Mexico  to  a  line  a  little  beyond  the  Isthmus  of  Te- 
huantepec  combined.  Applied  to  the  map  of  Europe 
this  area  would  include  every  country  with  the  excep- 
tion of  about  one-fourth  of  Eussia,  while  on  the  map  of 
Asia  it  equals  all  its  southern  portion  from  Cochin 
China  to  the  Mediterranean,  and  a  strip  extending 
north  to  include  Turkestan,  together  with  the  Japan- 
ese Empire  on  the  northeast.  It  should  be  remem- 
bered that  within  this  last-named  region  lies  the  so- 
called  *'  Continent"  of  India,  if  one  would  realize  the 
vast  extent  of  the  Chinese  Empire. 

2.  The  area  of  China  Proper  is  not  much  more 
than  one-third  of  the  total  extent  of  the  Empire, 
measuring  1,532,420  square  miles.  Compared  with 
familiar  standards,  it  is  equal  to  one  and  eight-tenths 
times  that  part  of  the  United  States  lying  east  of  the 
Mississippi.  Its  territory  would  furnish  more  than 
enough  material  for  "twelve  United  Kingdoms,  there 
would  be  unused  land  after  France  had  been  laid 
down  upon  it  seven  times  over,  and  India  without 
Burma  would  extend  beyond  China's  limits  only  by  a 
slight  fringe. 

An  idea  of  the  corresponding  latitudes  and  longi- 
tudes bounding  China  Proper  can  be  gained  if  we  sup- 
pose it  superimposed  on  the  United  States.  The  city 
of  Mukden,  in  the  remote  northeast,  may  be  placed 
on  Boston.  Its  southernmost  island  will  then  lie  upon 
Yucatan,  Havana  roughly  corresponding  in  position 
with  Canton.  Its  southwestern  boundary  will  almost 
touch  the  Mexican  coast  to  the  north  of  Tampico. 
Kansas  City  will  be  near  the  northwestern  boundary, 
if  the  extension  of  the  province  of  Kan-su  be  neglected, 
and  the  northern  frontier  will  thence  pass  through 
Chicago  and  Detroit  back  to  Boston  again. 

Striking  Physical  Features.  —  Sloping  to  the 
eastward  and  to  the  southeast  from  the  lofty  '^  roof  of 


THE   WORLD   OF  THE   CHINESE 


the  world  ^'  in  Central  Asia,  the  territory  is  seen  to  be 
alternately  furrowed  by  extensive  river  systems,  and 
divided  up  by  mountain-ridges  and  hills,  which  cover 
the  country  save  in  the  northeastern  quarter,  where 
there  is  an  immense  delta  plain,  one  of  the  most  no- 
ticeable features  of  the  Empire. 

1.  The  numerous  rivers  and  many  canals  of  China 
form  its  frequented  highways.  The  two  largest  of 
these  rivers — ho  is  the  term  commonly  used  for  river 
in  the  north,  as  kiang  (chiang)  is  in  the  south — are 
the  Huang  Ho,  Yellow  River,  and  the  Kiang  River, 
less  properly  called  the  Yang-tzii,  or  Son  of  Ocean,  as 
its  incorrectly  written  form  is  translated. 

The  Huang  Ho  receives  its  name  from  the  yellow 
clay  deposit  which  it  takes  up  in  its  course  through 
the  loess  region  of  the  provinces  of  Shan-hsi  and 
Shen-hsi,  the  same  deposit  giving  its  color  and  name 
to  the  Yellow  Sea  also.  As  it  reaches  the  Great  Plain, 
this  clay  silts  up  the  river-channel  until  its  bed  is  in 
gome  places  almost  as  high  as  the  surrounding  coun- 
try. Naturally,  in  times  of  unusual  freshets,  the  illy 
constructed  dikes  are  broken  through,  the  populous 
low-lying  plain  is  overwhelmed  with  ruin,  and  occa- 
sionally— ten  times  in  the  last  2,500  years — the  river 
opens  a  new  channel  to  the  sea.  Its  right  to  the  ap- 
pellation of  '*China''s  Sorrow"'  will  be  granted  when 
it  is  remembered  that  every  such  outbreak  means  the 
wholesale  destruction  of  crops,  the  melting  down  of 
numberless  adobe  houses,  and  an  enormous  loss  of 
human  life — millions  having  perished  in  the  over- 
flow of  1887,  for  example. 

Far  more  useful  is  the  Yang-tzu,  called  ''  the  girdle 
of  China,""  because  of  its  central  position  and  the 
number  of  provinces  through  which  it  passes.  Rising 
in  Tibet,  not  far  from  the  sources  of  the  Huang  Ho, 
this  mighty  river  stands  first  in  the  world  for  ar- 
rangement of  subsidiary  streams  which  make  its  en- 
tire basin  accessible  from  the  sea.  Ocean  steamers 
readily  reach  Han-k'^ou;  river  steamers  can  ascend  as 
far  as  I-ch'ang,  and  small  steamers  have  even  passed 


DAWN  ON  THE  HILLS   OF  T'ANG 


through,  the  rapids  into  the  heart  of  Ssti-ch'uan; 
while  native  boats  navigate  it  as  far  as  remote  Yiin- 
nan.  The  opening  up  of  this  river — whose  basin, 
with  its  12,000  miles  of  navigable  waterway,  occu- 
pies nearly  one-half  of  China  Proper — to  the  trade  of 
the  Occident  is  an  important  factor  in  China's  future 
development.  These  and  other  smaller  yet  very  im- 
portant rivers  are  her  glory,  and  *^no  country  can 
compare  with  her  for  natural  facilities  of  inland 
navigation/' 

2.  The  lahes  of  the  Empire  are  unimportant, 
though  in  some  sections  they  are  very  numerous, 
as  in  Koko-nor,  known  by  the  Chinese  as  the  *'  Sea 
of  Stars,''  because  of  its  many  lakelets.  They  are 
usually  quite  picturesque  and  support  a  large  aquatic 
populatiouj  whose  lieets  of  Ooats  thickly  dot  their 
waters.  The  largest  one,  Tung-t*mg  Hu,  is  abouii 
the  size  of  our  Great  Salt  Lake,  and  lies  in  the  centre 
of  China,  giving  its  name  to  the  provinces  Hu-pei  and 
Hu-nan— '^  North  of  the  Lake  "  and  ''  South  of  the 
Lake." 

3.  The  various  mountain  ranges  cannot  be  spoken 
of  in  detail.  In  general  it  may  be  said  that  starting 
from  the  Central  Asian  mountain  system  they  trav- 
erse the  western  and  southern  provinces,  decreasing 
in  height  as  they  approach  the  coast.  Naturally, 
with  this  difference  in  elevation  the  rugged  sides  and 
snowy  summits  of  the  western  ranges  give  place  to 
the  wooded  tops  and  carefully  cultivated  terraces  of 
the  southeastern  hills.  Eoughly  speaking,  that  por- 
tion of  China  lying  west  of  the  longitude  of  Canton 
is  mountainous,  while  the  region  lying  east  of  that 
same  meridian  and  south  of  the  Yang-tzii  River  is 
hilly. 

4.  The  Great  Plain  occupies  the  remaining  north- 
eastern section  of  the  Empire,  and  forms  its  richest 
portion.  Extending  from  a  point  somewhat  north  of 
Peking  to  a  short  distance  below  the  Yang-tzii,  with 
an  average  breadth  of  two  hundred  miles  in  its  north- 
ern portion  and  four  hundred  miles  in  its  southern. 


THE  WORLD  OF  THE  CHINESE 


it  contains  an  area  equal  to  that  of  the  New  Eng- 
land and  Middle  States,  together  with  Maryland  and 
Virginia.  This  plain  is  simply  the  slowly  accnmu- 
lating  delta  of  the  Huang  Ho,  aided  somewhat  by  the 
Yang-tzii.  If  historical  statements  can  be  trusted, 
the  former  river  is  encroaching  upon  the  Yellow  Sea 
at  the  rate  of  from  seventy  to  one  hundred  feet  per 
year. 

The  significant  fact  concerning  this  plain  is  the 
vast  population  which  it  supports,  it  being  estimated 
that  one  hundred  and  seventy-seven  millions  live  upon 
that  little  strip  of  country,  an  average  of  nearly  eight 
hundred  and  fifty  per  square  mile.  The  states  named 
above  as  its  equivalent  in  area,  though  among  the 
most  densely  populated  in  America,  had  in  1900  a 
little  over  twenty-four  million  inhabitants,  or  an  av- 
erage of  one  hundred  and  thirteen  per  square  mile, 
Bengal,  the  most  thickly  inhabited  province  of  India, 
lias  four  hundred  and  ninety-five  per  square  mile, 
while  the  density  of  Belgium's  population,  whicn 
leads  in  European  statistics,  is  but  five  hundred  and. 
eighty-nine  per  square  mile.  Thus  the  Great  Plain, 
with  its  mountain  spur  in  eastern  Shan-tung,  is  more 
densely  settled  by  far  than  any  other  equally  large 
portion  of  the  world. 

5.  The  fertility  of  this  Plain  is  largely  accounted 
for  by  the  loess  formation  which  is  characteristic  of 
the  northern  provinces,  adding  fertility  to  the  soil 
and  grotesqueness  to  the  topography.  Though  many 
competent  geologists  have  styled  the  loess  **  the 
most  diflB.cult  geological  problem,^'  its  appearance 
and  characteristics  are  thus  accurately  described  by 
Baron  von  Richthofen  :  ''The  loess  is  a  solid  friable 
earth  of  brownish-yellow  color,  and  when  triturated 
with  water,  not  unlike  loam,  but  differing  from  it  by 
its  highly  porous  and  tubular  structure  ;  these  tubes 
are  often  lined  with  a  film  of  lime,  and  ramify  like 
the  roots  of  plants.  ...  It  spreads  alike  both 
over  high  and  low  ground,  smoothing  off  the  irregu- 
larities of  the  surface,  and  its  thickness  often  consid- 


DAWN  ON  THE  HILLS  OF  T'ANG 


erably  exceeds  1,000  feet.  It  is  not  stratified,  and  has 
a  tendency  to  vertical  cleavage.  .  .  .  It  is  very 
fertile,  and  requires  little  manure.^'  This  last  char- 
acteristic has  made  it  possible  for  farmers  to  raise  two 
excellent  crops  year  after  year  on  the  same  plot  of 
ground  for  many  centuries.  In  the  mountainous 
regions  of  the  northern  frontiers  it  furnishes  comfort- 
able homes  to  many  thousands,  who  excavate  rooms 
in  the  side  of  loess  cliffs,  and  live  more  comfortably 
in  them  than  do  the  troglodytes  of  any  other  land. 

Two  serious  drawbacks  arising  from  the  loess  for- 
mation are  the  dust-storms,  which  occur  quite  fre- 
quently in  the  winter,  and  the  bad  roads,  due  to  the 
friable  nature  of  the  soil.  The  writer  has  journeyed 
over  highways  in  northern  Shan-hsi  that  were  narrow 
canyons  nearly  fifty  feet  in  depth,  formed  by  the  pul- 
verization of  the  soil  by  cart  traffic,  the  dust  being 
swept  away  by  the  first  strong  wind  or  heavy  rain. 

6.  Chinese  sceriery  is  as  varied  as  a  tropical  and  a 
cold  climate,  lofty  mountains  and  low-lying  hills, 
elevated  plateaus  and  monotonous  plains  rising  only 
a  few  feet  above  the  ocean,  parched  and  sterile  areas 
and  fertile  districts  bathed  in  moisture,  would  lead 
one  to  expect.  AVhile  the  gorges  of  the  great  rivers 
and  the  scenery  of  the  western  highlands  are  the  most 
striking  scenic  features,  there  is  a  quiet  beauty  no 
less  attractive  as  one  gazes  upon  the  terraced  and 
carefully  cultivated  hills  of  the  southeast,  and  the 
matchless  mosaic  formed  by  differing  crops  of  the 
multitudinous  farms  of  the  Great  Plain,  which  serve 
as  a  setting  for  adobe  hamlets  embowered  in  elms, 
willows,  and  the  so-called  date-trees. 

Most  striking  to  the  occidental  traveller  are  the 
massive  walls  of  China^s  more  than  1,550  walled  cities, 
often  overgrown  in  the  south  with  roses  and  honey- 
suckle, and  reminding  one  everywhere  of  dreams  of  the 
inediseval  period  in  European  history.  Almost  equally 
impressive  are  the  evidences  everywhere  present  in 
the  littoral  provinces,  and  to  a  less  degree  on  the 
Yang-tzu,  of  a  ''^  country  overburdened  with  a  popu- 


THE  WORLD  OF  THE  CHINESE 


lation  which  swarms  about  yon  wherever  yon  go.  The 
fields  are  everywhere  full  of  laborers  ;  in  the  moun- 
tainous districts  you  will  see  scores  of  terraces,  rising 
above  one  another  to  the  height  of  500  or  1,000  feet, 
and  the  hills  cultivated  in  many  places  to  their  very 
tops.  Pedestrians  are  everywhere  seen  in  the  roads 
and  by-paths  ;  the  rivers  and  numerous  canals  are 
filled  with  boats,  and  a  great  variety  of  busy  artisans 
ply  their  crafts  in  the  noisy  streets  of  the  cities  and 
villages/' 

Climatic  Conditions. — 1.  The  ^em^era^wre  varies 
greatly,  but  its  average  is  lower  than  in  any  other 
country  of  the  same  latitude.  The  isothermal  line 
of  70°  F.  as  the  average  for  the  year,  passing  north  of 
Canton,  runs  through  New  Orleans,  which  is  eight 
degrees  north  of  it.  That  of  60°  F.,  passing  through 
Shanghai,  is  the  same  as  the  isotherm  of  St.  Louis  and 
San  Francisco,  while  that  of  Peking  passes  through 
Philadelphia.  "  Canton,"  Williams  writes,  '^  is  the 
coldest  place  on  the  globe  in  its  latitude,  and  the  only 
place  within  the  tropics  where  snow  falls  near  the 
seashore.  One  result  of  this  projection  of  the  tem- 
perate zone  into  the  tropical  is  seen  in  the  greater 
vigor  and  size  of  the  people  of  the  three  southern 
provinces  over  any  races  on  the  same  parallel  else- 
where, and  the  productions  are  not  so  strictly  tropical.'* 

2.  The  rainfall  in  the  north  does  not  average  much 
over  sixteen  inches,  in  Canton  it  is  seventy  inches 
per  annum,  while  in  the  remote  west  it  is  prevailingly 
dry.  Almost  all  of  the  eastern  half  of  the  Empire 
has  a  wet  season  of  two  months  during  the  summer, 
the  rest  of  the  year  being  almost  rainless.  In  the 
north  the  winters  are  superb.  Cloudless  skies,  except 
for  the  dust-storms,  and  bracing  cold  act  as  a  tonic 
to  the  foreigner. 

3.  Missionaries  and  other  Occidentals  find  China 
fairly  healthful.  While  cholera,  small-pox,  and 
fevers  are  common,  and  local  diseases,  like  the  leprosy 
of  the  south  and  the  bubonic  plague  of  Hongkong 
and  Canton  affect  many  natives,  foreigners  are  rarely 


lO  DAWN  ON  THE  HILLS  OF  T'ANG 

attacked,  and  with  proper  precautions  may  safely 
dwell  in  every  province.  ^ 

Wealth  of  the  Empire. — 1.  The  Chinese  are 
for  the  most  part  agriculturists,  and  derive  their  sus- 
tenance from  a  fertile,  wisely  tilled  soil.  They  can 
scarcely  be  called  farmers,  as  land  is  occupied  in  such 
small  holdings  that  gardening  and  fruit-culture  are 
the  result.  An  incessant  use  of  the  hoe,  an  applica- 
tion of  every  particle  of  fertilizer  obtainable,  even  to 
refuse  hair  from  the  barber^s  razor,  and  unstinting 
irrigation,  when  required,  insure  abundant  crops. 
All  the  cereals,  most  of  the  vegetables  common  in 
America,  a  variety  of  fruits,  including  some  of  tropical 
character,  can  be  had,  while  the  opium  poppy,  the 
mulberry  for  silk  raising,  and  the  tea-shrub  are  largely 
grown  also. 

2.  Along  the  water-courses  and  on  the  lakes  are 
found  populations  numbering  many  millions,  who 
thrive  on  the  aquatic  resources  of  the  Empire.  Fish 
swarm  in  the  seas  and  rivers,  and  are  found  even  in 
pools.  Wild  water-fowl  are  netted  or  shot ;  frogs  are 
ingeniously  caught  in  large  numbers,  and  the  duck- 
boats,  accompanying  along  the  rivers  artificially 
hatched  ducklings,  are  a  source  of  great  profit, 

3.  The  mineral  wealth  of  China  is  enormous,  but 
thus  far  has  hardly  been  touched,  largely  because  of 
superstitious  regard  for  ftng-sliui — wind  and  water. 
All  the  common  metals,  except  platina,  are  found, 
but  coal  and  iron  are  most  important.  The  coal 
measures  are  twenty  times  more  extensive  than  those 
of  Great  Britain,  and  are  conveniently  distributed 
throughout  the  provinces.  Not  only  are  these  fields 
exceptionally  rich,  but,  owing  to  the  thickness  of  the 
seams  and  their  horizontal  position,  they  can  be  more 
readily  worked  than  the  mines  in  any  other  part  of 
the  world.  Professor  Keane  does  not  go  beyond  facts 
when  he  says  that  "  next  to  agriculture  the  main  re- 
source of  China  lies  in  the  ground  itself,  which  har- 
bors supplies  of  ores  and  coal  suflacient,  some  day,  to 
revolutionize  the  trade  of  the  world/' 


THE  WORLD  OF  THE  CHINESE  It 

4.  All  the  above-mentioned  sources  of  wealth  are 
made  effective  by  an  cibundant  supply  of  patient  and 
willing  labor.  The  English  navvy  and  British  sailor 
may  be  unexcelled  by  any  of  their  class  in  the  world, 
the  patent-devising  Yankee  may  not  find  his  equal  in 
other  lands,  Germany  may  stand  pre-eminent  in  point 
of  laborious  and  exhaustive  scholarship,  but  China 
will  not  yield  the  palm  to  any  nation  in  the  matter  of 
ability  to  labor  in  field  and  water  and  mine  under  the 
most  exhausting  and  unfavorable  circumstances  ;  and 
herein  lies  a  secret  of  the  prophecy  of  her  fitness  to 
survive  through  all  the  future. 

Chinese  View  of  the  World. — 1.  To  the  aver- 
age Chinese,  the  icorld  is  a  sjTionym  for  China,  as 
the  names  T4en  Hsia,  All  beneath  the  sky,  and  Ssii 
Hai,  All  between  the  four  seas,  indicate.  Concern- 
ing this  territory  he  ought  to  know  very  exactly,  for 
no  country  has  so  many  carefully  written  local  topo- 
graphical works  as  China  possesses.  As  a  matter  of 
fact,  however,  owing  to  lack  of  facilities  for  rapid 
intercommunication,  their  love  for  home,  and  their 
failure  to  teach  geography  in  schools,  even  literary 
graduates  are  wofully  ignorant  of  remote  provinces. 
Since  the  Jesuit  missionaries,  in  1708-18,  surveyed 
the  Empire,  corrections  have  not  been  made  in  their 
maps  to  correspond  with  changes  in  provincial  boun- 
daries, so  that  it  is  impossible  for  even  the  most 
interested  to  gain  accurate  information  concerning 
the  Chinese  world.  Still,  the  wild  ideas  of  their  own 
country,  so  far  as  the  marvellous  is  concerned,  could 
be  easily  remedied,  if  such  local  geography  as  they 
have  were  taught. 

2.  Ask  a  well-read  native,  living  in  the  interior, 
about  the  extra-  Chinese  world,  and  he  may  give  you 
the  most  fantastic  answers,  derived  from  Chinese 
works  on  foreign  geography  written  a  century  or  more 
ago. 

The  earlier  maps  are  a  sight  to  behold.  Beyond 
their  own  frontiers,  islands,  kingdoms,  and  continents 
are  promiscuously  distributed,  with  important  omis- 


12  DAWN  ON  THE  HILLS  OF  T*ANG 

sions  and  equally  remarkable  exaggerations.  ^'  The 
two  Americas  and  Africa  are  entirely  omitted  on 
most  of  them,  and  England,  Holland,  and  Portugal, 
Goa,  Lu9onia,  Bokhara,  Germany,  France,  and  India 
are  arranged  along  the  western  side,  from  north  to 
south,  in  a  series  of  islands  and  headlands.  The 
southern  and  eastern  sides  are  similarly  garnished  by 
islands,  as  Japan,  Lewchew,  Formosa,  Siam,  Burma, 
Java,  the  Sulu  Islands,  and  others,  while  Eussia  occu- 
pies the  whole  of  the  northern  frontier  of  their 
Middle  Kingdom. '' 

Common  ideas  about  these  countries — where  any 
ideas  at  all  are  present  —  are  equally  bizarre.  The 
earth  is  an  immense  stationary -plain.  "In  some 
parts  of  its  surface,''^  says  Williams,  "  they  imagine 
its  inhabitants  to  be  all  dwarfs,  who  tie  themselves 
together  in  bunches  for  fear  of  being  carried  away 
by  the  eagles  ;  in  others  they  are  all  women,  who  con- 
ceive by  looking  at  their  shadows ;  and  in  a  third 
kingdom  all  the  people  have  holes  in  their  breasts, 
through  which  they  thrust  a  pole,  when  carrying  one 
another  from  place  to  place.  ^' 

3.  Foreigners  at  close  range  are  not  discriminat- 
ingly understood  by  the  Chinese.  They  hold  that 
opium  was  forced  down  their  throats  at  the  mouth  of 
English  cannon,  and  hear  from  their  countrymen  in 
America  of  the  injustice  and  persecution  often  en- 
dured by  them  there.  Sailors  from  Christian  nations 
roam  through  Chinese  ports  in  a  state  of  lawless 
intoxication,  and  encourage  impure  women  to  walk 
the  streets  in  a  most  brazen-faced  manner,  so  that 
native  officials  of  Shanghai,  some  years  ago,  entered 
at  foreign  consulates  a  formal  protest  against  such 
open  violations  of  morality.  Stereoscopic  and  other 
views  of  the  most  obscene  character  are  bought  from 
foreigners  by  peep-show  men  and  penetrate  hundreds 
of  miles  into  the  interior. 

And  when  they  come  in  contact  with  foreigners  in 
commercial  or  diplomatic  circles,  the  fame  of  the 
Shanghai  horse-races  makes  many  feel  that  the  for- 


THE   WORLD  OF  THE  CHlN^S^  ^3 

eign  devil  has  come  to  establish  snch  races  in  their 
city.  A  game  of  cricket  or  lawn-tennis  is  a  profound 
mystery  to  them;  why  should  men  so  laboriously 
exert  themselves,  unless  it  is  a  new  and  most  profit- 
able form  of  gambling,  or  a  contention  for  stakes  ? 
A  morning  constitutional  is  interpreted  as  a  search 
for  gold,  an  excursion  for  the  purpose  of  planting 
little  men,  or  a  religious  duty,  inasmuch  as  walking- 
sticks  are  carried  and  are  often  aimlessly  waved  in  the 
air.  A  foreigner  walks  arm-in-arm  with  his  wife,  or  a 
party  of  both  sexes  dine  together,  and  Chinese  ideas 
of  propriety  are  shocked  beyond  measure,  especially 
if  the  ladies  are  in  evening  dress  or  possess  a  wasp- 
like waist. 

What  wonder,  then,  that  the  missionary  in  a  new 
locality  is  a  living  interrogation  point  in  their  minds. 
He  is  carefully  watched,  and  it  is  reported  that  his 
wife  has  light  hair ;  why  does  she  not  use  ink,  to 
cause  it  to  conform  to  the  orthodox  color  ?  How  can 
she  be  so  unfilial  as  to  be  living  in  China,  when  her 
rightful  mistress,  her  mother-in-law,  is  a  myriad  of 
miles  away  ?  Her  garments,  too,  are  so  odd,  and  her 
husband^s  coat  has  buttons  on  the  middle  of  the  back, 
and  they  have  a  stove,  with  no  one  knows  how  many 
lumps  of  coal  burning  in  it  all  at  once  !  Eumor  says, 
moreover,  that  there  are  unmarried  ladies  in  the  mis- 
sion station  ;  how  account  for  women  having  reached 
the  age  of  thirty  and  being  single  yet  ?  Probably  the 
reason  for  this  is  that  they  had  such  bad  tempers  that 
no  would-be  mother-in-law  was  found  heroic  enough 
to  consent  to  the  marriage;  or  perhaps  a  more  sinister 
reason  is  suggested,  if  the  male  missionary  frequently 
calls  upon  them.  Even  the  wonder-working  medical 
missionary  does  not  escape  the  tongue  of  the  gossip- 
monger.  He  works  great  cures — yes,  but  do  you  not 
know  that  he  also  gouges  out  eyes  and  digs  out 
hearts  ?  No  marvel  that  with  good  Chinese  hearts 
and  eyes  to  aid  them,  foreigners  can  compound  magio 
medicines  and  construct  heaven-piercing  telescopes. 
And  so  on  endlessly. 


14  X>AWN  ON  THE  HILLS  OF  T*ANG 

4.  If  one  would  understand  the  views  concerning 
their  own  superiority  and  the  great  inferiority  of  the 
other  nations,  prevalent  among  even  Chinese  scholars, 
the  facts  above  mentioned  must  be  borne  in  mind. 
Their  prejudice  against  foreigners  is  quite  largely 
due  to  ignorance.  Happily,  the  increase  of  mission 
schools,  in  which  Western  geography  is  taught,  the 
establishment  of  higher  government  institutions  for 
training  in  the  Western  sciences,  the  increasing  num- 
ber of  readers  of  Christian  and  scientific  books  and 
periodicals  among  the  literati,  and  above  all  wider 
contact  between  China  and  the  Western  Powers — ren- 
dered necessary  by  wars  and  growing  international 
complications — are  rapidly  transforming  their  crude 
and  grotesque  views,  and  the  consequent  prejudices 
are  disappearing,  especially  in  the  coast  and  Yang- 
tztl  provinces. 


chin-a's  inheritance  from  the  past 

Character  of  Chinese   Historical  Records.^ 

1  CrediUlitu.  Like  most  nations  whose  existence 
dates  from  remote  antiquity,  China^s  early  history 
fades  away  through  the  legendary  into  the  mythical 
realm  Yet  the  Chinese  historian  does  not  claim  for 
these  early  ages  any  genuine  historicity.  He  men- 
tions them  iust  as  modern  writers  speak  of  the  Ho- 
meric legends  in  writing  of  Greece,  or  of  Romulus  and 
Remus  in  treating  of  Rome.  It  must  be  admitted, 
however,  that  their  historians  have  gone  back  further 
into  the  mists  of  antiquity  than  most  Western  scholars 
care  to  follow  them.  So  famous  a  writer  as  Chu  Hsi, 
e  a  ,  begins  his  history  with  Fu  Hsi,  2852  B.C.,  while 
other  native  histories  commence  their  chronology 
with  the  sixty-first  year  of  Huang  Ti,  2G37  B.C.        ^ 

When  once  they  have  reached  genuinely  histono 
times,  which  can  safely  be  put  in  the  Chou  dynasty, 
founded  earlier  than  the  reign  of  David  and  Solomon, 
Chinese  historians  are  more  trustworthy  than  those 
of  most  other  nations;  though  some  discredit  i3 
thrown  upon  annals  preceding  Shih  Huang-ti,  the 
Great  Wall  builder,  two  centuries  before  Christ,  ow- 
ing to  the  fact  that  he  ordered  a  wholesale  destruction 

of  books.  .,.         -,^  .  I,-  i.    «. 

2  The  material  for  compiling  Chinese  history 
comes  from  four  main  sources,  the  Bamboo  Books,  the 
ancient  classics,  especially  the  ''  Books  of  History, 
and  the  ^^  Spring  and  Autumn  Annals,  local  annals 
and  dynastic  records.  The  local  annals  classify  under 
twenty-four  headings  everything  that  can  be  known 
concerning  even  the  smallest  district  m  the  Empire, 
as  well  aa  each  province. 


l6  DAWN  ON  THE  HILLS   OF  T'ANG 

Dynastic  histories  are  officially  prepared  by  histo- 
rians of  the  right  hand,  who  record  the  facts  of  the 
reign,  and  those  of  the  left  hand,  whose  duty  it  is  to 
report  imperial  speeches,  charges,  etc.  Their  in- 
structions require  these  state  historiographers  to  ac- 
company the  Emperor  at  all  times,  noting  and  dating 
everything,  and  at  the  end  of  each  month  these  rec- 
ords are  sealed  up  and  deposited  in  a  desk,  whence, 
at  the  end  of  the  year,  they  are  transferred  to  the 
care  of  the  Inner  Council.  Not  until  a  given  dynasty 
ceases,  and  a  new  line  assumes  the  imperial  yellow, 
are  these  records  taken  from  the  iron  safe  and  given 
to  the  world.  Fearless  and  faithful  annals  are  thus 
provided  for,  though  absolute  accuracy  is  not  always 
secured,  even  with  such  admirable  precautions. 

3.  The  literary  character  of  these  writings  is  de- 
cidedly disappointing.  Like  the  compilers  of  Prot- 
estant church  history  who  prepared  the  Magdeburg 
Centuries,  Chinese  historians  write  under  categories, 
thus  producing  a  monotonous  set  of  formulae,  so  to 
speak,  with  blanks  filled  in  as  facts  require.  Dynastic 
historians  carefully  refrain  from  any  reflections  or 
comparisons ;  they  make  simple  statements  only,  after 
the  manner  of  Confucius  in  his  "■  Spring  and  Autumn 
Annals.^'  The  minuteness  and  exhaustive  prolixity 
of  their  historians  may  be  judged  from  the  fact  that 
the  Bureau  of  Military  History  reported  that  their 
account  of  two  rebellions  occurring  in  our  own  time 
fills  360  volumes,  while  the  local  history  of  the  city  of 
Su-chou  has  forty  volumes,  and  that  of  the  province 
of  Kuang-tung  is  in  182  volumes. 

China's  Prehistoric  Dawn. — If  this  age  is  sub- 
divided into  a  mythological  and  a  legendary  period, 
it  is  not  strictly  prehistoric  ;  for  doubtless  much 
that  has  been  written  of  the  legendary  period  is  true 
history. 

1.  The  mythological  ages  cover  from  45,000  to 
500,000  years.  Though  this  is  absurdly  long,  it  is  as 
nothing  compared  with  the  kalpas  of  India,  '^  whose 
highest  era,  called  the  Unspeakably  Inexpressible, 


CHINA'S  INHERITANCE  FROM  THE  PAST  17 

requires  4,456^448  ciphers  following  a  unit  to  repre- 
sent it" 

Within  this  period  lies  Chinese  cosmogony  with  its 
theory  of  a  T'ai  Chi,  or  Great  Extreme — the  ultimate 
immaterial  principle  of  Chinese  philosophers — and  of 
the  dual  powers,  yin  and  yang.  P'an  Ku  first  ap- 
pears after  heaven  and  earth  are  separated,  and  begins 
his  eighteen  thousand  years'  task  of  chiselling  out  of 
formless  granite,,  floating  in  space,  the  sun,  moon,  and 
stars.  Companions  with  him  during  these  ages  are 
China's  famous  fabulous  animals,  the  dragon,  phoenix, 
and  tortoise,  "progenitors  with  himself  of  the  ani- 
mal creation." 

After  his  death,  in  which  every  portion  of  his  body 
accrues  to  the  benefit  of  his  universe — even  to  the 
parasites,  which  become  men — three  great  sovereigns 
or  families  of  brothers,  possessed  of  monstrous  form, 
rule  the  world  for  from  18,000  to  432,000  years. 
Following  the  Celestial,  Terrestrial,  and  Human 
Sovereigns,  come  two  monarchs,  one  the  Nest-having, 
who  may  have  invented  nests  or  abodes  for  his  sub- 
jects, and  the  other  Fire  Producer,  a  Chinese  Pro- 
metheus who  brought  down  fire  from  heaven  for 
man's  use. 

2.  The  legendary  period  is  universally  regarded  as 
beginning  with  the  monarch  Fu  Hsi,  but  its  later  limit 
is  questioned,  some  saying  that  it  ceases  with  the  be- 
ginning of  the  Chou  dynasty,  1122  B.C.,  and  others 
limiting  it  by  the  accession  of  Yao,  2357  B.C.,  or  by 
the  year  781  B.C. 

Between  Fu  Hsi's  reign  and  that  of  Yao,  the  Chi- 
nese place  nearly  all  the  inventions  and  the  formula- 
tion of  those  ethical  and  governmental  theories  which 
have  distinguished  the  life  of  China  from  the  earliest 
times.  Yet  it  is  not  until  we  reach  the  reign  of  Yao 
and  his  successor  Shun  that  we  find  Confucius  and 
Mencius  making  any  great  use  of  Chinese  history. 
If,  with  Dr.  Legge,  we  regard  Yli  as  the  founder  of 
the  Empire — as  he  was  of  the  Hsia  dynasty  in  2205 
B.C. — we  still  find  ourselves  surrounded  with  legend- 


l8  Z)^WW  ON  THE  HILLS  OF  T'ANG 

ary  mists  which  do  not  clear  away  until  T'ang,  the 
Successful,  established  the  succeeding  Shang  dynasty 
in  1766  B.C. — nearly  as  long  before  the  Christian  era 
as  our  Declaration  of  Independence  dates  after  it. 
The  reason  that  may  possibly  have  led  Confucius  and 
Mencius  to  place  their  Golden  Age  earlier  than  this 
in  the  reigns  of  Yao  and  Shun — who  were  doubtless 
real  and  able  rulers,  but  whose  history  is  deeply  tinged 
with  legendary  coloring — is  thus  stated  by  Dr.  Will- 
iams :  *'  Whatever  was  their  real  history,  those  sages 
showed  great  sagacity  in  going  back  to  those  remote 
times  for  models  and  fixing  upon  a  period  neither 
fabulous  nor  certain,  one  which  prevented  alike  the 
cavils  of  scepticism  and  the  appearance  of  complete 
fabrication.  ■'' 

3.  Tlie  residuum  of  fact  underlying  the  story  of 
this  prehistoric  and  legendary  period  proves  that 
China  possessed  culture  and  civilization  at  a  time 
when  only  the  Egyptian,  the  Chaldean,  and  the  Hittite 
had  risen  above  the  level  of  surrounding  nations. 
Forty  centuries  ago — nearly  a  thousand  years  before 
the  earliest  assured  event  in  Greek  history,  the  Dorian 
invasion,  and  a  century  before  Abraham  was  born — 
we  find  in  North  China,  in  the  modern  province  ol 
Shan-hsi,  a  people  with  institutions,  government,  and 
religion,  with  a  fairly  well-developed  literature  and  a 
knowledge  of  sciences  and  arts. 

This  much  is  generally  agreed  to  by  scholars ;  but 
there  is  greater  diversity  of  opinion  when  the  ques- 
tions are  asked.  Whence  came  the  Chinese?  Fn'om 
what  source  toas  their  culture  derived?  Whether  the 
question  is  answered  by  the  record  found  in  Genesis, 
chs.  ix.-xi.,  or  by  the  researches  of  archaeologists,  the 
usual  reply  to  the  first  query  is,  that  the  Chinese 
originally  came  from  the  region  lying  below  the 
Caspian  Sea,  and  entered  China  from  the  northwest, 
settling  along  the  banks  of  the  Yellow  River. 

The  origin  of  Chinese  culture  is  a  more  difficult 
problem  to  solve.  The  main  answers  given  are,  the 
plain  of    Sliinar,   Egypt  or    an    Egyptian  colony. 


CHINA'S  INHERITANCE  FROM  THE  PAST  ig 

Scythia,  India,  and  a  denial  of  any  Western  origin. 
As  some  eighty  eminent  Sinologues,  Assyriologists, 
and  Orientalists  assent  to  the  main  conclusions  elab- 
orately argued  for  by  Professor  Dr.  Terrien  de  Lacon- 
perie,  the  prevalent  verdict  may  be  said  to  point  to 
Babylonia  and  Elam  as  the  springs  whence  China's 
early  culture  flowed. 

Key  Characters  in  Chinese  History. — The 
student  desirous  of  understanding  China's  past, 
must  make  himself  familiar  with  certain  characters 
whose  names  and  deeds  are  well  known  to  every 
scholar,  and  some  of  which  are  household  names. 

1.  The  ruler  practically,  though  not  theoretically, 
stands  first  in  order  among  men.  One  must  know 
the  accepted  history,  partly  legendary,  no  aoubt,  oi 
tJie  early  rulers  Yao,  Shun^  and  Yil,  and  of  the  his- 
toric kings  W^n  and  Wu,  as  well  as  Duke  Ghou. 
These  are  worthy  of  double  honor,  since  they  are  ac- 
counted  sages  as  well  as  rulers.  From  an  occidental 
rather  than  a  Chinese  stand-point,  one  must  learn  the 
true  position  of  the  much  maligned  Shih  Huang-ti, 
of  wall-building  and  literature-destroying  fame,  who 
has  been  called  the  Napoleon  of  China.  The  second 
T'ang  sovereign,  T'ai  Tsung,  who  after  death  was 
styled  the  Literary-Martial  Emperor,  must  be  known  ; 
for  he  "  may  be  regarded  as  the  most  accomplished 
monarch  in  the  Chinese  annals — famed  alike  for  his 
wisdom  and  his  nobleness,  his  conquests  and  good 
government,  his  temperance,  cultivated  tastes,  and 
patronage  of  literary  men.''  His  dominions,  more- 
over, extended  as  far  west  as  the  Caspian  Sea.  Nor 
must  one  be  ignorant  of  the  Empress  Wu,  wife  of  the 
son  of  the  famous  T'ai  Tsung,  who  during  the  last  two 
decades  of  the  seventh  century  made  herself  famous  as 
well  as  infamous ;  though  it  is  doubtless  true  that  to 
support  their  favorite  thesis  that  women  ought  not  to 
meddle  with  government,  native  historians  have  un- 
duly blackened  her  character.  No  one  who  has  tasted 
Marco  Polo's  story  of  KuUai  KJian  will  be  in  dan- 
ger of  neglecting  that  hero  of  the  Yiian  dynasty. 


20  DAIVN-  ON  TBE  HILLS  OF  T*ANG 

though  here  again  the  Chinese  do  not  so  much  ad- 
mire their  foreign  sovereign  as  Occidentals  are  likely 
to  do.  K^ang  Hsi,  the  second  Emperor  of  the  present 
dynasty,  is  more  celebrated  than  almost  any  other 
Asiatic  sovereign,  rivalling  if  not  surpassing  T'ai 
Tsung.  His  record  is  of  the  utmost  interest  to  Chi- 
nese and  foreigner  alike.  And,  of  course,  no  friend 
of  China  will  care  to  be  ignorant  of  the  reigning  Em- 
peror, Kuang  Hsu,  Succession  of  Light,  and  of  the 
scarcely  less  famous  rulers  of  the  Empire  during  his 
minority,  the  Empress  Doiuager — one  of  the  most  re- 
markable of  Manchu  women — and  Li  Hung-chang, 

2.  We  do  not  need  to  speak  of  the  sages,  as  most 
of  them  pose  also  as  rulers,  and  have  been  already 
mentioned.  Of  the  philosophers  and  noted  literary 
men,  Lao-tzu,  the  founder  of  the  Taoist  sect,  is  first 
in  point  of  time,  and  though  contemporary  with  Con- 
fucius, he  was  perhaps  a  keener  thinker  and  a  more 
enlightened  man  than  his  more  famous  compeer. 
"  The  throneless  King^'  is  no  empty  title  for  K'ung 
Fu-tzii,  Philosopher  K'ung,  Latinized  into  Confucius. 
Probably  no  one  has  exerted  a  more  extensive  in- 
fluence among  men  than  this  last  officially  recognized 
Chinese  sage.  His  alter  ego  is  Mencius  or  Meng-tzu, 
though  he  lived  nearly  two  centuries  later.  He  is  to 
Confucius  very  much  what  Plato  was  to  Socrates. 
CMi  Fu-tzii,  who  flourished  700  years  ago,  is  perhaps 
China's  greatest  philosopher  and  teacher,  and  it  is 
his  interpretation  of  the  Classics  that  constitutes 
present-day  Confucianism.  These  are  the  commonly 
mentioned  names  among  a  host  of  great  philosophers 
and  teachers,  but  Western  readers  will  find  more  to 
their  taste,  perhaps,  the  works  of  the  heretic  Micius, 
who  laid  it  down  as  a  duty  *'  to  love  all  equally,'^  or 
those  of  Chuang-tzu,  the  great  Taoist  philosopher, 
mystic,  and  magician,  "  whose  writings  have  been  de- 
scribed as  *  a  storm  of  dazzling  effects."'" 

The  student  of  Chinese  general  literature  must 
become  acquainted  with  China's  Herodotus,  Ssu-ina 
ChHen,  the  scarcely  less  illustrious  Han  historian.  Pan 


IMAGE   OF    CONFUCIUS,   YO   LO   COLLEGE,   CH'aNG-SHA 


THE    WHITE    DEER    COLLEGE    OF    CHU    FU-TZU 


CHINA'S  INHERITANCE  FROM  THE  PAST  21 

Ku,  and  Ssu-ma  Kuang  of  the  Sung  dynasty,  who 
was  statesman  as  well  as  historian,  and  the  author  of 
''  General  Mirror  to  Aid  in  Governing/'  Nor  can  one 
afford  to  be  ignorant  of  the  heptameters  of  the  fa- 
mous T'ang  poets  Li  T'ai-pai  and  Tu  Fu,  or  of  the 
one  hundred  and  fifteen  volumes  of  the  Sung  poet,  Su 
Timg-p'o.  Less  weariness  is  experienced  as  the  for- 
eigner takes  up  ChHn  Shoic's  "History  of  the  Three 
States, '^  replete  as  it  is  with  graphic  descriptions  of 
plot  and  counterplot,  battles,  sieges,  and  retreats, 
character  delineations  and  episodes,  all  composed  in 
a  style  known  to  the  Chinese  vulgar  as  j^  nao,  hot 
racket,  or  most  interesting.  Dr.  Li,  author  of  the 
"  Herbal,"  must  be  a  familiar  name  to  the  medical 
missionary,  as  also  that  of  the  ^sculapius  of  the 
Chinese  Pantheon,  Hua  T'o.  Modern  Dry-as-dusts 
will  desire  to  know  3Ia  Tuan-Un,  the  author  of 
"Complete  Antiquarian  Eesearches,"  in  three  hun- 
dred and  forty-eight  chapters.  "No  book  has  been 
more  drawn  upon  by  Europeans  for  information  con- 
cerning matters  relating  to  Eastern  Asia  than  this.'' 
This  work,  the  first  to  deserve  the  name  of  encyclo- 
paedia, introduces  the  occidental  student  to  an  illus- 
trious line  of  encyclopaedists.  Thus,  the  third  em- 
peror of  the  last  dynasty,  Yung  Lo,  "Eternal  Joy," 
appointed  a  commission  of  two  thousand  members, 
who  prepared  a  manuscript  encyclopaedia  of  22,937 
chapters,  while  the  second  emperor  of  the  present 
dynasty,  K'^ang  Hsi,  appointed  another  commission, 
who,  after  forty  years,  finished  with  volume  5,020 
the  "  Imperially  Ordered  Complete  Collection  of  An- 
cient and  Modern  Literature,  with  Illustrations." 

3.  Illustrious  wo?ne7i  of  China  gain  fame  for  the 
most  part  by  methods  decidedly  unique.  There  are 
in  the  Empire  more  outward  evidences  of  feminine 
renown  than  of  the  greatness  of  Chinese  statesmen, 
warriors,  and  scholars.  These  usually  take  the  form 
of  honorary  portals,  erected  by  Imperial  rescript  in 
honor  of  distinguished  women.  Dr.  Faber  estimates 
that  they  may  average  one  to  every  million  womeu 


22  DAIVN  ON  THE  HILLS   OF  T*ANG 

during  the  past  2,500  years,  and  mentions  three  chief 
reasons  for  their  being  so  honored  by  the  Emperor  : 
suicide,  committed  because  of  attachment  to  parents 
or  husband,  or  through  fear  of  shame ;  living  as  a 
widow  in  mourning  to  the  end  of  life  ;  filial  devotion, 
exhibited  by  remaining  unmarried  that  she  may  serve 
her  parents,  or  refusing  to  marry  again  after  her  hus- 
banas  death,  that  she  may  minister  to  her  parents- 
in-law,  or  the  cutting  out  of  a  portion  of  her  own 
flesh  to  be  used  as  a  tonic  for  sick  parents  or  parents- 
in-law.  Imperial  orders  bearing  on  such  cases  are 
frequently  appearing  in  the  ''  Peking  Gazette/' 

If  we  ask  what  causes  have  made  those  women  fa- 
mous or  notorious,  who  have  become  so  through  the 
voice  of  the  people,  the  high  authority  just  quoted 
gives,  as  the  reasons  suggested  in  a  large  number  of 
native  works  consulted,  the  following  categories : 
filial  daughters,  devoted  sisters,  young  women  who 
had  something  to  say  or  do  in  the  matter  of  securing 
a  husband,  famous  courtesans,  women  skilled  in  in- 
trigue, renowned  empresses,  good  wives,  bad  wives, 
good  mothers,  bad  mothers,  widows,  authoresses, 
artists,  artisans,  supernatural  females,  and  goddesses. 

While  the  foreigner  will  not  care  to  read  the  rather 
voluminous  literature  relating  to  illustrious  women, 
he  will  be  aided  in  his  understanding  of  the  people 
by  a  knowledge  of  the  reasons  leading  to  the  exist- 
ence of  honorary  portals  and  the  slabs  mounted  on 
the  backs  of  stone  tortoises  erected  in  their  honor  in 
his  district.  It  will  also  prove  interesting  to  learn 
details  about  the  Empress  Wu  and  the  present  Em- 
press Dowager,  Tzii  Hsi  (pins  fourteen  other  words 
contained  in  her  imperially  conferred  title).  Of  the 
many  authoresses  who  are  worth  knowing,  perhaps 
the  most  influential  is  Pan  Chao,  a  sister  of  the  Han 
historian.  Pan  Ku.  On  her  brother's  decease,  she 
was  appointed  state  historiographer,  and  at  her  death 
was  honored  by  the  Emperor  with  public  burial  and 
the  title  of  Great  Lady  Ts^ao.  It  was  she  who  wrote, 
soon  after  the  death  of  St.  Paul,  "  the  first  work  in 


CHINA'S  INHERITANCE  FROM  THE  PAST  23 

auy  language  on  female  education,"  and  her  '^Fe- 
male Precepts  "  has  been  the  basis  of  many  succeed- 
ing books  on  that  topic. 

Present-day  Survivals  of  China's  Past. — 
We  must  pass  on  to  this  topic  without  naming 
China's  great  warriors,  like  the  famous  generals  of 
the  Three  Kingdoms,  Ts^^ao  Ts'^ao,  and  especially  the 
Chinese  Mars,  Kuan  Ti,  who  reappeared  in  the  heav- 
ens half  a  century  ago,  a  la  Castor  and  Pollux,  and 
gave  the  battle  to  the  Imperial  cause,  when  their  an- 
tagonists, the  T^ai  P^ing  rebels,  were  fighting  under 
the  Christian's  God.  For  this  signal  service  the  Em- 
Deror  raised  him  lo  tiie  rank  of  Confucius,  and  ne 
has  become  the  patron  deity  of  the  present  dynasty 

k..  Some  of  these  survivals  exist  in  material  forir 
after  the  lapse  of  millenniums.  Thus,  the  Greai, 
Wall,  extending  across  China's  northern  frontier, 
existed  in  some  of  its  detached  sections  some  time 
before  Shih  Huang- ti,  in  214  B.C.,  ordered  it  to  be 
added  to  and  consolidated  into  one  mass  of  stone, 
brick  and  earth,  stretching  over  a  distance  as  great 
as  that  between  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  and  Lincoln,  Neb. 
Counting  its  sinuosities,  its  length  is  nearly  or  quite 
1,500  miles.  The  magnitude  of  this  undertaking 
grows  upon  one,  if,  like  the  writer,  one  walks  along 
parallel  with  it  for  ten  days  at  an  average  of  thirty 
miles  a  day,  and  then  remembers  that  one  has  seen 
only  a  fifth  of  this  mountain-scaling  rampart  of  past 
ages. 

The  Grand  Canal,  or  Ytin  Ho,  though  no  longer 
either  grand  or  a  canal  scarcely,  was  in  its  day  one  of 
the  most  useful  artificial  waterways  in  the  world. 
While  the  famous  Mongol  Emperor,  Kublai,  ordi- 
narily has  the  credit  of  excavating  it,  it  existed  in 
some  of  its  parts  from  the  Han  dynasty,  while  the 
Sui  and  T'ang  emperors  likewise  did  much  toward 
its  extension  and  improvement.  The  design  was  to 
artificially  connect  lakes  and  rivers,  so  that  an  inland 
passage  for  junks  might  extend  from  Peking  to 
Canton.     Changes  of  the  course  of  the  Yellow  Kiver, 


24  DAWN  ON  THE  HILLS   OF  T'ANG 

one  of  its  great  feeders,  the  silting  up  of  its  bed, 
and  the  introduction  of  coasting  steamers,  account 
for  its  present  dilapidated  and  partially  useless  con- 
dition. 

Some  of  the  roads  and  bridges  of  ancient  times 
still  exist,  mostly  in  North  China,  though  in  a  sad 
state  of  repair.  The  excruciating  stone  road  be- 
tween Peking  and  its  junk-port,  T'ung  Chou,  was 
centuries  ago  almost  equal  to  the  royal  roads  of  the 
Koman  Empire.  A  more  conspicuous  work  of  the 
ancient  road-builders  is  seen  in  the  great  highway, 
dating  from  the  third  century,  a.d.,  and  leading 
from  Peking  to  Ssii-ch'uan,  in  the  remote  west.  In 
the  mountain  regions  this  called  for  a  pathway 
'*  which  for  the  difficulties  it  presents  and  the  art 
and  labor  with  which  they  have  been  overcome, 
does  not  appear  to  be  inferior  to  the  road  over  the 
Simplon.^'  *'  At  one  place  on  this  route,  called  Li- 
nai,  a  passage  has  been  cut  through  the  rock,  and 
steps  hewn  on  both  sides  of  the  mountain  from  its 
base  to  the  summit.'^  The  narrow  roads  or  paths 
over  the  passes  in  Fu-chien  and  Kuang-tung  are  less 
ancient,  but  hardly  less  useful.  Some  have  claimed 
for  China  the  invention  of  chain  suspension  bridges. 
They  certainly  possessed  them  from  ancient  times. 
Archdeacon  Gray  describes  one  in  Kuei-chou,  built 
in  A.D.  35. 

Other  minor  survivals  of  the  past  are  some  bells  of 
the  Chou  dynasty  and  the  famous  stone  drums  of 
Peking,  commemorating  a  royal  hunt,  827  B.C.  The 
so-called  inscription  of  Yii  on  a  mountain-peak  in  Hu- 
nan is  ancient  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  it  may  have 
been  a  fabrication  of  the  Han  dynasty  or  of  many 
centuries  later.  Copper  cash  by  the  thousand  are 
genuine  remains  of  at  least  a  three  thousand  years' 
coinage.  The  writer,  when  in  Mongolia,  exchanged 
a  Christian  booklet  costing  less  than  half  a  cent  for 
a  coin  minted  during  the  reign  of  King  Saul. 

2.  Far  more  numerous  than  these  actual  specimens 
of  China's  ancient  handiwork  are  institutions  and 


CHINA'S  INHERITANCE  FROM  THE  PAST  2$ 


inventions  of  past  ages.  While  it  may  be  true  that  a 
large  maiority  of  the  three  hundred  and  seventy  items 
of  culture-mentioned  by  Professor  de  Lacouperie 
as  derived  from  Anterior  Asia  and  Western  India 
during  the  2,500  years  of  China's  early  history— may 
have  come  from  those  sources,  it  still  remains  true 
that  China  has  uninterruptedly  possessed  those  ele- 
ments  of  civilization  during  the  succeeding  centu- 
ries though  all  Asiatic  nations,  save  India,  have  lost 
most  of  them  and  lapsed  into  semi-barbarism,  if  in- 
deed they  have  not  become  extinct  nations,  it 
should  also  be  remembered  that  there  is  m  China 
much  civilization  that  is  indigenous.  ^  .      -.    i 

Her  qovernment—^  combination  of  the  patriarchal 
and  imperial  form-its  codes  of  laws  and  scheme  of 
civil-service  examinations,  and  China's  system  of  ter- 
ritorial divisions,  have  existed  for  centuries  almost 
unchanged,  making  her  people  law-abiding  and  ca- 
pable of  progress  when  other  nations  were  m  darkness. 
As  one  reads  the  Erh  Ya,  Ready  Guide,  and  notes 
the  close  resemblance  of  its  pictures  to  objects  used 
in  the  arts  and  trades  of  to-day,  one  can  hardly 
believe  that  it  is  the  oldest  philological  work  extant, 
claiming  to  be  the  work  of  Duke  Chou,  1100  B.C., 
though  it  was  largely  added  to  by  a  disciple  of  Con- 
fucius and  again  in  a.d.  280.  Some  of  these  ancient 
tools  and  implements  are  very  ingenious  and  ser- 

yiceable.  .      .      .-,  ^ 

Three  of  the  greatest  agencies  m  the  progress  ot 
the  race  were  used  in  China  long  before  they  became 
known  to  Europeans.  Thus  the  invention  of  the 
compass  is  attributed  to  Huang  Ti,  who  was  said  to 
have  constructed  a  chariot  for  indicating  the  south 
and  used  it  to  direct  his  way  in  a  fog  some  2,600 
years  B.C.  It  is  explicitly  mentioned  m  a  Chinese 
dictionary  of  a.d.  121,  and  seems  to  have  been  used 
by  mariners  more  than  fifteen  centuries  ago.  irmi' 
vowder,  according  to  Grosier,  was  known  at  or  be- 
fore the  Christian  era,  though  it  is  quite  probable 
that  it  was  not  employed  as  an  agent  of  warfare  until 


26  DAWN  ON  THE  HILLS   OF  T'ANG 

the  twelfth  century.  Mayers,  on  the  other  hand, 
contends  that  it  reached  China  from  India  or  Central 
Asia  in  the  fifth  century  a.d.  Full  credit  may  be 
^iven  the  Chinese  for  an  invention  second  only  in 
importance  in  the  realm  of  thought  to  the  formation 
of  alphabets,  the  art  of  printing.  Reproducing  cop- 
ies of  a  writing  from  an  engraved  block  dates  from 
the  sixth  century,  but  "  the  honor  of  being  the  first 
inventor  of  movable  type  undoubtedly  belongs  to  a 
Chinese  blacksmith  named  Pi  Sheng,  who  lived  about 
A.D.  1000,  and  printed  books  with  them  nearly  five 
hundred  years  before  Gutenberg  cut  his  matrices  at 
Mainz.  ^'  These  were  porcelain  type  set  in  an  iron 
Irame,  and  could  be  reset  and  used  indefinitely. 

Two  of  China^s  principal  manufactures  should  be 
mentioned,  as  their  originality  has  never  been  suc- 
cessfully contested,  those  of  silk  and  porcelain. 
Aristotle  to  the  contrary,  Europe  undoubtedly  ob- 
tained the  secret  of  silk  manufacture  from  China, 
even  if  it  were  through  the  links  of  Greece  and  Per- 
sia. From  the  earliest  historic  time,  sericulture  has 
been  a  highly  honored  Chinese  occupation,  with  the 
Empress  as  a  living  and  active  patroness.  Of  porce- 
lain ^  James  Paton  writes  :  "  It  is  to  the  Chinese  that 
the  world  owes  the  manufacture  of  porcelain  ;  and  in 
strict  chronological  sequence,  in  antiquity  of  the 
industry,  in  skill  and  resource  in  working  raw  ma- 
terials, and  in  richness  and  variety  of  the  finished 
products  the  Chinese  ought  to  have  the  first  place. 
W  hen  the  Greeks  were  making  their  terra-cotta  vases, 
the  Chinese  were  manufacturing  porcelain  ;  they  had 
mastered  the  secrets  of  that  most  difl&cult  of  ceramic 
tasks  2,000  years  before  it  was  accomplished  by  Euro- 
peans.^' 

3.  China's  most  precious  heirlooms  from  the  past 
are  her  literary  treasures.  Her  spoken  language  re- 
mains in  essentially  the  same  simple  monosyllabic  form 
of  4,000  years  ago.  Its  marvellous  written  characters 
put  to  shame  the  hieroglyphs  of  every  nation,  and  serve 
a  purpose  which  nothing  else  could  fill,  if  a  nation  is 


CHINA'S  INHERITANCE  FROM  THE  PAST  2? 

to  have  a  copious  and  clearly  understood  vocabulary- 
expressed  by  monosyllables.  Chinese  literature  is 
voluminous  and  ancient  in  spite  of  its  fiery  auto  da 
fe  2,100  years  ago.  Its  antiquity,  however,  only  adds 
lustre  to  its  strongly  ethical  character  and  its  fitness 
for  governmental  uses  to-day,  not  only  in  China,  but 
in  other  nations  which  desire  an  ethical  idealism  as 
the  basis  of  law.  In  a  later  chapter  this  topic  will  be 
dealt  with  more  fully. 

It  must  not  be  forgotten  that  education,  which  has 
been  almost  deified  in  China,  and  which  has  made  her 
a  nation  of  scholars  from  before  the  Christian  era, 
has,  until  this  decade,  depended  almost  solely  upon  a 
literature  that  antedates  that  of  Eome  and  nearly  all 
of  Grecian  literature.  This  is  but  one  item  of  many 
that  might  be  cited  to  show  that  the  Chinese  Empire 
differs  from  every  other  existing  nation,  India  not 
excepted,  in  the  fact  that  it  is  dominated  to-day  by 
the  life,  the  processes,  and  the  ideas  of  a  past  whicn 
is  mainly  antique. 

Some  Secrets  of  China's  Protracted  Exist- 
ence.— A  review  of  Chinese  history  would  be  incom- 
plete, if  no  explanation  of  her  unequalled  antiquity 
were  attempted.  The  Hittites  have  left  scarcely  a 
trace  of  their  former  greatness ;  Chaldea  exists  only 
as  a  name  and  on  clay  tablets ;  Egypt  of  the  Exo- 
dus remains  in  brick  and  mummy  and  hieratic 
hieroglyphs ;  ancient  Greece  and  Rome  have  left  to 
the  world  only  their  precious  pearl-bearing  shells  ; 
even  Vedic  India  has  fallen  from  her  lofty  height  to 
the  god-  and  caste-ridden  myriads  of  modern  Hin- 
duism. China,  on  the  contrary,  is  to-day  stronger, 
perhaps,  than  she  has  ever  been  after  an  unbroken 
existence  of  nearly  forty  centuries.  How  account 
for  this  marvellous  anomaly  ? 

1.  China  has  always  possessed  that  fundamental 
element  of  perpetuity,  protection  from  foes  without. 
The  loftiest  mountains  in  the  world,  and  the  broad- 
est ocean  swept  by  armada-destroying  typhoons,  the 
bulwarks  of  deserts  and  barren  soil,  supplemented  by 


28  DAWN  ON  THE  HILLS  OF  T'ANG 

the  greatest  artificial  rampart  ever  raised  by  man— . 
these  have  been  an  ample  defence  against  China^a 
enemies. 

Scarcely  less  formidable  is  the  barrier  of  an  isolat- 
ing monosyllabic  language  which  has  made  China  a 
sphinx  among  her  Asiatic  neighbors.  It  has  at  once 
prevented  the  Chinese  from  learning  from  others,  and 
has  practically  forced  all  who  came  within  her  boun- 
daries to  forsake  their  own  tongue  and  learn  hers. 

Add  to  these  barriers  the  hopelessness  of  attempt- 
ing to  overcome  such  vast  masses  of  humanity  as  are 
contained  within  the  Empire,  and  one  can  readily  see 
that  the  task  could  not  be  successfully  undertaken  by 
the  sparsely  settled  regions  surrounding  China  on  all 
sides  save  on  the  populous  Indian  quarter  against 
which  God  thrust  upward  for  miles  into  the  sky  His 
snow-capped  towers  and  insurmountable  battlements. 

2.  Some  national  cha7'acteristics  have  doubtless 
tended  to  China's  perpetuity.  Ignorance  of  anything 
better  beyond  her  confines  would  make  her  satisfied 
with  her  own  rich  endowment.  Physical  strength, 
hostile  to  decay,  which  the  Chinese,  dwelling  in  the 
temperate  zone,  have  enjoyed  to  a  remarkable  degree, 
partly  accounts  for  her  survival.  Industry,  neces- 
sitated by  physical  environment  and  competition,  has 
left  little  leisure  for  discontent  and  organized  plotting 
against  the  powers  that  be.  A  contented  perseverance 
in  the  midst  of  difficulties  makes  the  Chinese  abide 
in  their  callings  as  few  nations  care  to  do.  Love  of 
home  keeps  the  population  from  coveting  and  striving 
for  the  possessions  of  those  more  remote,  whether 
within  the  Empire  or  outside  its  borders.  To  a  peo- 
ple possessed  of  a  notoriously  phlegmatic  temperament 
and  of  a  conservatism  amounting  to  almost  uncon- 
querable inertia,  the  above  characteristics  would 
prove  both  a  centripetal  and  a  conserving  force  of 
great  strength. 

3.  The  internal  resources  of  the  Empire  in  point 
of  natural  wealth,  fairly  easy  intercommunication, 
salubrious  climate,  and  facilities  for  the  cultivation  of 


CHINA'S  INHERITANCE  FROM  THE  PAST  29 

the  mind,  have,  until  recent  centuries,  been  such  that 
no  inducement  has  offered  to  emigrate,  nor  has  any 
desire  been  felt  to  allow  to  come  within  the  Empire 
outside  barbarians  who  might  disturb  this  desirable 
prosperity  and  tranquillity. 

4.  Unlike  most  extinct  nations,  China  has  contained 
within  herself  safeguards  against  internal  conflict 
and  decay.  Rebellions  and  revolutions,  which  have 
wiped  out  other  peoples,  have  affected  China  but  lit- 
tle, since  her  sages  have  taught  that  when  a  dynasty 
so  far  forgets  itself  as  to  disregard  the  desires  of 
Heaven,  Heaven  will  smile  upon  their  armed  protest 
and  appoint  a  new  vicegerent  who  will  rule  right- 
eously. Hence  rebellion  quickly  accomplishes  its  ob- 
ject, and  peace  reigns  again.  Ambition  for  martial 
renown  has  struck  the  death-blow  of  many  a  nation ; 
but  in  China  her  crowned  kings  are  her  canny  men, 
and  ambition  finds  its  highest  rewards  in  the  con- 
quests of  knowledge  and  the  triumph  of  academic 
victory. 

Against  tendencies  to  decay  are  pitted  some  of  the 
items  already  named  in.  paragraph  numbered  2,  and  a 
temperance  which  has  been  phenomenal  until  the 
nineteenth  century  had  forced  upon  an  unwilling  peo- 
ple the  destructive  appetite  for  opium.  A  system  of 
ethics,  second  only  to  the  Christian  system,  has  been 
taught  in  every  school-room  for  2,000  years,  and  in 
its  important  society-preserving  elements  has  been 
insisted  upon  by  local  officials  for  an  even  longer 
period.  Filial  piety,  which  so  many  historians  and 
preachers  of  the  arm-chair  type  have  considered  to  be 
the  secret  of  China's  long  existence,  may  have  failed 
in  many  respects,  but  it  has  been  the  means  of  en- 
grafting on  the  nation  a  sense  of  obedience  and  sub- 
ordination that  has  checked  revolt  and  anarchy. 
Hoary  old  age,  before  which  even  the  mighty  Em- 
peror K'ang  Hsi  stood  in  reverence,  is  an  influential 
Chinese  Ecclesiastes,  which  cries  out  to  libertines  and 
spendthrifts,  "  Vanity  of  vanities."'  High  officials 
do  not  encourage  a  desire  for  luxury,  since  they  serve 


30  DAWN  ON  THE  HILLS  OF  T'ANG 

for  a  limited  time  in  a  given  place,  and  that  away 
from  their  own  home,  so  that  there  is  little  induce- 
ment to  live  luxuriously.  Private  wealth  must  hide 
itself,  lest  it  arouse  the  cupidity  of  official  underlings, 
and  the  almost  universal  nearness  of  want  makes  lux- 
urious decay  impossible. 

5.  Government  and  laws  are  often  responsible  for  a 
nation's  perpetuity  or  destruction.  China's  code  is 
remarkable  in  many  respects  and  its  paternal  theory 
makes  it  popular.  Officials  are  civic  fathers  and 
mothers,  while  the  Emperor,  Son  of  Heaven,  prays 
and  sacrifices  to  the  heavenly  powers  when  his  chil- 
dren suffer  from  great  calamity.  That  this  govern- 
ment should  have  long  survived  is  quite  natural ;  for 
it  supports  by  its  strong  sanction  the  authority  of 
rulers  on  the  one  hand,  while  on  the  other  it  authorizes 
resistance  to  glaring  evil  in  high  places.  Moreover, 
all  official  positions  in  the  Empire  save  the  Imperial 
ones  are  open  to  any  man  in  the  land — except  certain 
wisely  debarred  persons — provided  he  has  the  requis- 
ite ability.  As  every  family  has  in  its  membership 
some  noted  official,  Chinese  clan-spirit  supports  the 
system. 

The  laws  are,  in  the  main,  very  equitable,  and  in 
the  villages,  where  the  majority  of  Chinese  dwell, 
they  are  largely  in  the  hands  of  village  elders,  who 
dispense  them  as  befits  so  nearly  a  republican  form  of 
administration.  The  corruption  found  in  city  courts 
of  justice  also  tends  to  obedience  to  law  ;  since  law- 
suits mean  bribery,  torture  and  loss,  even  if  the  case 
is  won. 

6.  To  the  Christian  who  sees  the  purposes  of  God 
in  history,  His  hand  is  beneath  the  Chinese  throne 
and  this  wonderful  Empire  has  been  continued 
through  the  ages  to  accomplish  His  will.  That  a 
nation  of  such  marked  strength  has  existed  for  4,000 
years  is  an  indication  of  its  future  survival,  and  we 
may  be  sure  that  God  has  reserved  it  for  some  gra- 
cious and  world-influencing  purpose.  It  is,  then,  the 
privilege  and  duty  of  every  child  of  God  to  co-operate 


CHINA'S  INHERITANCE  FROM  THE  PAST  ^1 

with  Him  in  helping  Sinim  to  know  its  Maker  and 
to  accomplish  His  great  designs. 

The  Dawn  of  a  New  Era. — For  the  reasons 
above  given,  China^s  great  age  has  benefited  few  be- 
yond her  own  subjects.  Seated  on  a  throne  of  selfish 
isolation  she  has  ruled  '*^  all  within  the  four  seas/' 
and  cared  nothing  for  the  nations  without. 

But  to-day  conditions  have  radically  changed. 
China's  open  ports  are  filled  with  the  merchantmen  of 
the  world.  Eailroads  are  beginning  to  be  built ;  tele- 
graphs extend  to  all  of  her  provincial  capitals  ;  her 
mineral  wealth  is  coveted  by  the  nations,  and  has 
become  an  object  of  importance  to  her  own  prosperity. 
Contemporaneously  with  the  removal  of  ignorant 
prejudice  against  foreigners,  and  the  emergence  of 
her  new  importance  to  the  world,  has  come  the  rude 
awakening  caused  by  the  imperious  knocking  at  her 
doors  of  the  great  European  Powers.  Port  Arthur, 
AVei-hai-wei,  Kiao-chou  Bay,  the  Yang-tzu  valley, 
the  territory  bordering  on  the  possessions  of  France, 
have  been  invaded  and  isolation  is  at  an  end.  Even 
anti-foreign  Hu-nan  has  her  open  ports,  and  mission- 
aries reside  within  her  territory.  China's  garnished 
house  has  been  swept  clean  from  effective  opposition 
and  prejudice.  But  who  is  to  enter  in  through  her 
open  gates — the  Church  of  God  with  her  ministra- 
tion of  mercy  and  salvation  -^  or  Western  avarice  and 
land-hunger,  occidental  vices  and  materialism  ?  The 
latter  forces  are  entering ;  shall  not  Christianity  enter 
with  equal  stride  as  a  conserving  factor  in  this  period 
of  national  transformation  ? 


ni 

"THE  REAL  CHIiq-AMAN" '* 

On'E  who  would  understand  the  Chinese  and  the 
work  which  the  Church  and  Western  civilization  are 
called  upon  to  do  for  them,  must  carefully  consider 
Chinese  character  and  the  social  and  industrial  en- 
vironment found  in  the  Empire.  So  important  is 
the  moral  and  religious  life  of  the  Chinese,  that  it 
will  form  the  topic  of  a  separate  chapter. 

Numbers  and  Distribution. — A  reference  to  the 
statistics  given  under  the  provinces  in  Appendix  A 
will  reveal  these  facts  in  detail.  According  to  "  The 
Statesman's  Year  Book,  1904, '^  the  total  population 
of  the  Eighteen  Provinces  is  407,253,029.  China 
is,  therefore,  the  most  populous  nation  of  the  world, 
containing  as  it  does  more  than  five  times  the  popula- 
tion of  the  United  States,  and  fully  one-fourth  of  the 
inhabitants  of  the  globe.  Other  authorities  vary  from 
300,000,000  and  even  less  to  over  400,000,000.  The 
census  of  1812,  regarded  by  authorities  as  the  most 
trustworthv  of  Chinese  enumerations,  gives  a  popu- 
lation of  362,447,183. 

Eeasons  for  such  wide  differences  of  opinion  are 
found  in  the  facts  that  the  m^7i  paH,  or  registration 
tablets,  supposed  to  be  found  on  every  householder's 
door,  may  be  altered  according  as  the  registration  is 
for  the  object  of  securing  persons  for  public  service 
or  for  purposes  of  taxation  ;  or,  on  the  other  hand, 
for  learning  how  many  '^mouths "may  need  to  be 
fed  at  public  expense  in  time  of  famine.  Moreover, 
as  a  yearly  record  of  population  is  required  by  the 
government,  many  officials  doubtless  save  themselves 
trouble  by  adding  or  subtracting  a  certain  percentage 

32 


*'THE  REAL    CHINAMAN*'  33 

on  the  basis  of  the  previous  reports.  In  one  case  tes- 
tified to  by  Dr.  Dndgeon,  of  Peking,  a  foreign  minis- 
ter received  from  the  proper  board  a  total  population 
which  had  been  deliberately  reduced  by  one-third, 
because  ^'^the  officials  sought  to  check  missionary 
zeal  by  this  considerable  reduction  of  the  population. 
In  the  following  year,  as  no  abatement  of  missionary 
immigration  seemed  to  follow,  the  [subtracted]  fig- 
ures were  again  added  to  the  records. ''' 

A  glance  at  the  accompanying  map  will  show  ii^liere 
the  population  is  densest y  and  where  most  sparse. 
The  coast  provinces  and  a  belt  across  the  centre  of  the 
Empire  along  the  Yang-tzu  are  the  populous  sections, 
while  in  the  northwest  and  southwest  are  the  sparsely 
inhabited  regions. 

Characteristics  of  the  Chinese. — A  Chinese 
proverb  to  the  effect  that  the  summer  insect  will  not 
speak  of  ice,  nor  a  frog  in  a  well  discourse  on  the 
heavens,  is  forgotten  by  many  writers  who  study  the 
Chinese  in  our  laundries,  or  in  Chinese  ports,  where 
contact  with  the  vices  of  a  Western  civilization  let 
loose  for  a  lustful  holiday  has  had  a  baneful  effect  on 
a  much  tempted  and  abused  people.  Merchants  who 
live  in  the  treaty  ports,  travellers  along  the  coast  with 
no  knowledge  of  the  language,  and  the  average 
steamer  captain  with  the  vicious  life  of  the  port 
from  which  to  gain  his  data  concerning  the  Chinese 
and  missionary  effort,  are  not  to  be  wholly  trusted  as 
witnesses  concerning  the  natives  and  missions  among 
them. 

As  foreign  customs-officials  have  mainly  to  do  with 
the  seamy  side  of  Ah  Sin^s  nature,  and  as  diplomatic 
representatives  of  the  Occident  consort  largely  with 
the  official  classes,  the  missionary  has  thus  far  come 
into  closest  contact  with  the  typical  Chinese,  and 
hence  is  best  fitted  to  pronounce  on  their  character. 

1.  While  the  races  of  China  Proper  are  remarkably 
homogeneous,  the  Miao-tzu  excepted,  they  differ 
neatly  so  much  as  to  deserve  separate  mention. 

The  Tibetans  are  found  only  in  small  numbers  on 


34  DAWN  ON  THE  HILLS  OF  T'ANG 

the  western  border.  ''They  are  short,  squat,  and 
broad-shouldered  in  body,  with  angular  faces,  wide, 
high  cheek-bones,  small  black  eyes,  and  scant  beard/* 
Physically  they  are  a  cross  between  the  Mongols  and 
the  Hindus. 

The  JTongols,  i.e..  Brave,  are  quite  abundant  along 
the  northern  frontier,  especially  north  of  the  Great 
Wall.  They  are  essentially  nomadic  and  pastoral  ex- 
cept inside  the  Wall,  where  they  are  found  transport- 
ing goods  on  their  camel-trains  or  engaged  in  trading. 
They  are  generally  "a,  stout,  squat,  swarthy,  ill- 
favored  race  of  men,  having  high  and  broad  shoul- 
ders, short,  broad  noses,  pointed  and  prominent  chins, 
long  teeth  distant  from  each  other,  eyes  black,  ellip- 
tical, and  unsteady,  thick,  short  legs,  with  a  stature 
nearly  or  quite  equal  to  the  European/' 

Scattered  through  the  southern  and  southwestern 
provinces  are  many  large  communities  of  Miao-tzu, 
or  aboriginal  tribes,  differentiated  by  the  adjectives 
'' Savage ''  and  "Subdued."  ''They  are  rather 
smaller  in  size  and  stature,  have  shorter  necks,  and 
their  features  are  somewhat  more  angular.  .  .  , 
An  examination  of  their  languages  shows  that  those 
of  the  Miao-tzu  proper  have  strong  affinities  with  the 
Siamese  and  Annamese,  and  those  known  as  Lolo  ex- 
hibit a  decided  likeness  to  the  Burmese.^' 

The  present  rulers  of  China,  the  Ma7ichus,i.e.,'Pure, 
though  perhaps  derived  from  the  same  stock  as  the 
Mongols,  are  hunters  and  agriculturists  in  Manchuria, 
and  in  China  are  distributed  in  various  parts  of  the 
Empire,  often  in  garrisons,  as  supporters  of  the  reign- 
ing dynasty.  They  "  are  of  a  lighter  complexion  and 
somewhat  larger  than  the  Chinese,  have  the  same 
conformation  of  the  eyelids,  but  rather  more  beard, 
while  their  countenances  indicate  greater  intellectual 
capacity.  .  .  .  They  have  fair,  if  not  florid,  com- 
plexions, straight  noses  and,  in  a  few  cases,  brown  hair 
and  heavy  beards."  Dr.  Williams  regards  them  as 
*'  the  most  improvable  race  in  Central  Asia,  if  not  on 
the  continent." 


**THE  REAL   CHINAMAN '*  35 

''The  physical  traits  of  the  Chinese  may  be  de- 
scribed as  being  between  the  light  and  agile  Hindu, 
and  the  muscular,  fleshy  European.  Their  form  is 
well-built  and  symmetrical ;  their  color  is  a  brunette 
or  sickly  white  ...  ;  in  the  south  they  are 
swarthy  but  not  black.  .  .  .  The  hair  of  the 
head  is  lank,  black,  coarse,  and  glossy  ;  beard  always 
black,  thin  and  deficient ;  scanty  or  no  whiskers  ;  and 
very  little  hair  on  the  body.  Eyes  invariably  black 
and  apparently  oblique.  .  .  .  The  cheek-bones 
are  high  and  the  outline  of  the  face  remarkably  round. 
The  nose  is  rather  small.  .  .  .  Lips  thicker  than 
among  Europeans.  .  .  .  The  height  of  those 
living  north  of  the  Yang-tzij  is  about  the  same  as  that 
of  Europeans.^'  In  physical  endurance  the  Chinese 
rank  very  high,  and  can  undergo  extreme  hardship 
in  the  frigid  or  torrid  zone  better  than  almost  any 
other  nationality.  This  is  the  race  that  constitutes 
almost  the  entire  population  of  China  Proper,  the 
other  races  being  comparatively  few  in  number. 

2.  In  what  some  ethnologists  call  emotional  charac- 
ters, the  Chinese  rank  almost  as  high  as  in  their  phys- 
ical excellencies.  They  are  remarkably  industrious 
when  there  is  sufficient  motive,  and  were  it  not  for 
the  opium  vice,  recently  contracted,  they  would  rank 
high  among  the  nations  of  the  world  for  temperance^ 
a  trait  largely  fostered  by  their  use  of  tea.  Early 
and  almost  universal  marriage  prevents  outward  in- 
dications of  sensuality,  though  in  the  ports  one  sees 
abundant  evidence  of  it,  as  also  in  the  catamites  of 
the  inns,  and  in  the  Adonises  kept  by  many  officials 
and  men  of  wealth.  The  swarm  of  eunuchs  in  the 
palace  and  the  Emperor's  extensive  harem  are  hap- 
pily not  duplicated  elsewhere,  and  polygamy  does 
not  extensively  prevail.  The  abnormal  develop- 
ment of  the  vocabulary  of  obscenity  is  a  sure  index 
of  depraved  imaginations,  though  its  common  use 
may  be  as  thoughtless  as  the  oaths  of  habitual  swear- 
ers among  us.  Except  within  clan  and  family  lines, 
the  Chinese  are  not  a  very  sociable  people,  nor  does 


36  DAWN-  ON-  THE  HILLS  OF  T'ANG 

their  idea  of  the  privacy  of  home  life  permit  of 
much  hospitality  outside  of  those  who  may  legiti- 
mately be  received  as  guests.  Though  naturally  peace- 
able, quai^rels  are  extremely  common  and  the  voca- 
tion of  peacemaker  is  an  awkward  necessity.  Among 
women  quarrelsomeness  frequently  results  in  a  rage 
which  so  excites  the  individual  that  it  brings  one- 
half  the  cases  among  women  patients  to  many  mis- 
sion dispensaries ;  while  not  infrequently  do  men  as 
well  as  women  chH  ssu  liao,  i.e.,  die  of  anger,  as  they 
say.  Bravery  is  not  so  characteristic  of  the  Chinese 
as  of  Mongols  and  Manchus  ;  yet  in  war,  if  they  have 
confidence  in  their  leaders,  they  well  deserve  the 
name  worn  on  their  breasts.  Brave.  Politeness  and 
ceremonial  are  most  prominent  features  in  Chinese 
intercourse,  so  that  some  have  called  the  educated 
classes  the  most  dignified  and  polite  people  of  the 
world,  the  French  and  Japanese  not  excepted. 
Indeed,  life  is  little  else  than  ceremonial  and  polite- 
ness for  those  in  high  station,  and  among  the  lower 
classes  it  prevails  on  the  required  days  and  in  certain 
relations  of  society.  Filial  piety  may  be  only  exter- 
nal, but  it  is  omnipresent  on  state  occasions  and  is  a 
dominating  factor  in  Chinese  life.  Conservatism  is  a 
most  noticeable  trait  of  their  character ;  yet  it  has,  on 
the  whole,  been  of  advantage,  since  almost  invariably 
it  has  resulted  in  their  conserving  that  which  is  best 
for  the  nation,  as  they  regard  it. 

3.  Intellectually  the  Chinese  rank  high  among  the 
races.  In  cranial  capacity  the  ideal  Mongolic  type 
falls  short  of  the  ideal  Caucasic  by  only  100  cubic 
centimetres,  being  from  1,200  to  1,300.  It  is  thus 
considerably  above  the  average  racial  skull  capacity. 

While  in  the  opinion  of  some  writers,  the  present 
simple  and  nearly  primitive  form  of  the  language  is 
an  argument  against  their  intellectual  power,  it 
should  be  remembered  that  the  strongest  reason,  per- 
haps, for  such  an  arrested  development  lies  in  their 
possession,  at  a  very  early  period,  of  a  large  body  of 
worthy  literature,  the  wide  use  of  which  has  satisfied 


EXA^IIXATIOX    HALL   AXD    STALLS   AT    XAXKING 

Accommodating  30,000  Candidates  for  Degrees 


**THE  REAL   CHINAMAN"  37 

them.  Moreover,  no  nation  using  hieroglyphs,  not 
even  Egypt,  has  begun  to  elaborate  such  a  form  of 
writing  to  the  extent  and  with  the  ingenuity  of  the 
Chinese,  as  witness  the  almost  45,000  characters  in 
the  Imperial  Dictionary  of  K^ang  Hsi.  The  mere 
arrangement  in  a  dictionary  of  such  a  mass  of  ideo- 
graphs, so  that  they  can  readily  be  found,  though 
there  is  no  alphabet  to  arrange  them  under,  is  a 
triumph  of  genius.  So,  too,  are  the  introduction 
of  tones,  the  use  of  numeratives,  the  collocation  of 
synonyms  and  the  use  of  enclitics  to  prevent  the 
ambiguity  which  necessarily  arises  in  a  monosyllabic 
tongue,  with  its  extremely  limited  number  of  words — 
only  420  different  syllables  Or  words  are  used  in  Peking- 
ese. Fancy  our  utter  bewilderment  if  our  thoughts 
needed  to  be  expressed  through  the  medium  of  420 
syllables  representing  45,000  words,  many  of  which 
are  pronounced  the  same,  but  written  differently,  as 
rite,  right,  wright,  write,  for  example.  It  would  be 
impossible  for  us  through  an  alphabet  to  accomplish 
what  the  Chinese  have,  when  every  one  of  the  105 
characters — which  on  an  average  have  the  same 
sound,  though  not  the  same  tone — possesses  a  form 
as  perfectly  distinct  as  the  four  English  words  in  the 
illustration  above.  It  is  safe  to  say  that  no  nation 
could  have  more  satisfactorily  solved  the  problem  of 
homophony  in  a  monosyllabic  tongue  than  has  China. 
A  no  less  certain  indication  of  their  intellectual 
power  is  the  supreme  place  and  honor  given  to 
education.  If  it  be  granted  that  the  subjects  on 
which  they  are  examined  for  degrees  are  antiquated 
and  that  the  memory  rather  than  the  logical  powers 
have  received  cultivation,  this  does  not  prove  that 
they  are  lacking  in  intellectuality,  but  indicates 
rather  an  error  in  method.  A  piece  of  personal  testi- 
mony may  here  be  in  place.  The  writer  taught  for 
two  years  in  one  of  our  best  preparatory  schools, 
Phillips  Academy,  Andover,  and  compared  carefully 
nearly  a  dozen  picked  Chinese  students,  sent  to  Amer- 
ica by  the  Educational  Commission,  with  students 


DAIVN  ON  THE  HILLS   OF  T'ANG 


from  our  best  American  families.  The  Chinese  sur- 
passed in  diligence  our  own  young  men,  but  seem- 
ingly failed  because  of  their  lack  of  logical  power. 
As  a  result,  the  Faculty  regarded  them  as  somewhat 
inferior  to  our  students.  Later  the  writer  was  con- 
nected with  what  is  now  the  North  China  College, 
near  Peking.  The  students  there  were  of  about  the 
same  age,  but  from  ordinary  Chinese  families  ;  yet 
being  taught  through  a  perfectly  understood  medium, 
their  native  tongue,  and  by  missionaries  who  appre- 
ciated fully  the  intellectual  weaknesses  of  their  pupils, 
they  far  outstripped  the  ordinary  American  student. 
There  were  two  men  out, of  eleven  in  the  last  class 
with  which  he  had  to  (To,  who  would  have  ranked 
higher  as  students,  if  they  had  had  like  access  to 
Western  literature,  than  anyone  in  his  own  class  of 
more  than  130  members  at  Yale.  It  is  quite  gener- 
ally admitted  that  with  a  right  method  of  instruction 
and  an  enlarged  access  to  the  literature  of  the  West, 
the  Chinese  will  be  close  rivals  with  the  New  Japan 
and  with  Germany  for  the  first  place  in  the  scholar- 
ship of  the  twentieth  century.  Heredity — for  every 
Chinese  family  contains  noted  scholars  within  a 
generation  or  two — a  genius  for  patient,  scholarly 
plodding  and  a  memory  which  retains,  almost  without 
effort,  practically  all  the  data  it  has  ever  learned, 
may  make  up  in  this  rivalry  for  the  present  lack  of 
imagination,  so  essential  for  working  hypotheses,  and 
of  ingenuity,  equally  necessary  in  an  age  when  so 
much  is  learned  in  laboratories. 

When  asked  for  the  product  of  Chinese  mind,  only 
a  meagre  report  can  be  given  in  the  realm  of  science, 
though,  as  already  shown,  China  antedates  the  Occi- 
dent in  some  important  inventions  and  arts.  Arith- 
metic was  taught  from  a  very  early  period  and  one 
T'ang  dynasty  arithmetician  offered  a  reward  of  a 
thousand  taels  of  silver  to  anyone  who  could  dis- 
cover an  error  in  his  work  on  solid  mensuration. 
Hindu  algebra  was  early  known  and  Chinese  scholars 
have  willingly  learned  the  higher  mathematics  from 


*' THE  REAL  CHINAMAN**  39 

Europeans,  since  they  ascribe  our  advance  in  the 
exact  sciences  to  them.  Astronomy  has  always  been, 
a  favorite  study  also,  though  beyond  the  observatioix 
and  recording  of  eclipses  and  other  celestial  phenom- 
ena and  the  regulation  of  the  calendar,  they  have 
known  little  until  taught  by  the  Occident.  As. 
already  seen,  they  have  been  lamentably  ignorant  of 
geography,  and  in  medicine  they  have  held  equally 
incorrect  and  ludicrous  ideas,  though  it  should  be 
added  that  they  have  made  some  good  use  of  herbs. 
Dr.  Martin  has  tried  to  show  that  the  Chinese  have 
anticipated  some  important  modern  discoveries,  such 
as  biological  evolution,  unity  of  matter  and  motion, 
conservation  of  energy,  and  the  existence  and  prop- 
erties of  elemental  ether.  Yet  it  must  be  said  that 
any  such  allusions  and  discussions  are  not  very  clear. 

In  tlie  arts  the  Chinese  have  done  little  of  solid 
worth.  Drawing  and  painting  are  conventional  and 
are  weak  in  perspective.  Music  is  deficient  in  its 
theory  and  ear-torturing  in  execution,  especially 
when  produced  by  an  orchestra  or  by  shrill  falsetto 
singers.  One  rather  admires  Chinese  architecture, 
with  its  gracefully  curved  roofs,  modelled  perhaps 
after  the  sloping  sides  of  their  ancestral  tents,  and 
the  towering  pagoda,  so  characteristic  of  Chinese 
scenery.  Landscape  gardening  in  a  few  instances 
reaches  the  point  of  absolute  genius,  especially  when 
limited  space  is  made  to  appear  ample  by  the  plant- 
ing of  dark-foliaged  tall  trees  in  the  foreground  and 
smaller  and  lighter  foliaged  ones  toward  the  back- 
ground. In  other  ways  also  the  landscape  gardener 
produces  living  effects,  much  as  our  best  scene  paint- 
ers do  it  artificially. 

Sociological  Environment  of  the  Chinese. — 
Differences  in  various  parts  of  the  Empire  make  it 
impossible  to  give  a  faithful  picture  of  this  environ- 
ment ;  yet  some  general  ideas  may  be  of  value. 

1.  The  home  and  clan  life  is  scarcely  known  by 
any  other  foreigners  than  the  missionaries.  Like 
that  in  India,  this  life  is  spent  by  the  majority  in 


40  DAWN  ON  THE  HILLS  OF  T*ANG 

villages  and  not  in  the  1,553  walled  cities  of  the 
Empire,  nor  in  isolated  houses,  as  in  Western  coun- 
try villages.  In  some  cases  not  a  person  lives  in  this 
village  who  does  not  belong  to  a  given  clan,  and  in 
other  villages  it  is  quite  common  for  the  oldest  sur- 
viving head  of  a  family  to  have  in  the  same  court- 
yard with  himself,  his  sons  and  grandchildren,  his 
daughters  having  been  obliged  to  marry  into  a  family 
of  a  different  surname  and  so  living  elsewhere.  The 
power  granted  by  law  and  custom  to  these  family  or 
clan  heads  makes  village  life  in  China  quite  patri- 
archal. 

A  village  is  a  collection  of  low,  one-story  adobe, 
wooden,  or  brick  houses  closely  adjoining,  sur- 
rounded, it  may  be,  with  an  adobe  or  mud  wall  for 
defence  against  brigands,  and  overshadowed  by  trees. 
Centrally  located  is  the  village  well,  and  often  near  by 
is  seen  the  little  temple,  with  its  shabby  array  of 
local  deities.  Unless  large,  there  is  scarcely  a  shop 
to  be  found,  as  frequently  recurring  fairs  at  a  larger 
adjacent  town  supply  the  simple  outside  wants  of  the 
villagers.  From  their  homes  issue  at  an  early  hour 
the  men  and  boys  en  route  for  the  fields,  where  man- 
power rather  than  that  of  beast  is  mainly  employed. 
Thence  they  return  to  get  the  first  meal  of  the  day  at 
eleven  o'clock,  after  which  they  again  go  to  work,  not 
coming  back  until  six  or  seven  for  supper.  The 
women  meanwhile,  if  they  have  not  gone  to  the  fields, 
have  been  busy  with  their  children  and  with  cooking, 
spinning,  weaving,  caring  for  the  family  wardrobe, 
and  gossiping  or  quarrelling.  And  so  the  life  goes 
on,  without  any  knowledge  of  a  Sabbath,  and  allevi- 
ated by  only  a  few  holidays,  chief  among  which  is  the 
New  Year. 

As  io foody  rice  and  vegetables  are  the  staff  of  life  in 
the  central  and  southern  parts  of  the  Empire,  while 
in  the  north,  wheat  flour  or  millet  takes  the  place 
of  rice.  Chinese  cookery  is  ingenious  in  its  ability 
to  give  flavor  to  the  tasteless  rice  or  boiled  wheat 
flour  by  a  multitude  of  inexpensive  relishes.      Pork 


THE  REAL   CHINAMAN"  4I 


and  chickens  are  occasionally  eaten,  beef  is  not  often 
so  used,  save  in  the  north,  while  dog-meat,  rats,  and 
cats  are  indulged  in  much  as  horse-flesh  is  in  Paris. 
So  poor  are  many  of  the  people  that  food  is  eaten  by 
weight,  so  many  ounces  for  each  person,  a  practice 
alluded  to  in  Scripture  as  a  symbol  of  famine.  To 
have  all  that  one  desires  to  eat  and  a  correspondingly 
ample  figure,  are,  according  to  Chinese  ideas,  infalli- 
ble proofs  of  great  happiness. 

The  sumptuary  laws  of  the  Empire  are  most 
minute  and  rigid ;  yet,  as  Hallam  has  testified  con- 
cerning Europe,  it  has  not  been  easy  to  enforce  them 
in  China.  In  village  life  they  mainly  affect  clothing, 
though  the  walking-stick  regulation  is  also  com- 
monly regarded.  Missionaries  often  offend  unwit- 
tingly by  carrying  canes  in  middle  life,  or  even  in 
youth,  and  by  constructing  houses  contrary  to  their 
sumptuary  laws,  a  proceeding  far  more  harmful  in 
villages  than  in  cities.  Blue  cotton  cloth  is  the 
commonest  material  for  tlie  clothing  of  both  men 
and  women.  In  the  winter  this  may  be  wadded  or 
lined  with  sheep-skin.  A  species  of  shirt  and  coat, 
drawers  and  trousers,  stockings  and  shoes  are  not 
very  different  for  the  two  sexes,  though  a  gentleman 
would  never  appear  in  public  without  a  long  gown 
reaching  to  the  ankles.  His  garments,  moreover, 
would  be  of  silk  or  broadcloth,  of  blue,  lavender, 
plum-color,  or  gray.  Caps  are  commonly  worn  by 
men  in  the  winter  and  doffed  in  the  summer,  unless 
replaced  by  a  broad-brimmed  hat.  Ladies  are  per- 
mitted to  wear  gowns,  instead  of  trousers  merely, 
and  they  often  dress  quite  elaborately.  Were  it  not 
for  their  highly  rouged  faces  and  goat-like  bound 
feet,  some  of  them  would  look  very  handsome. 

The  great  events  in  family  life  are,  as  with  us,  births^ 
marriages,  and  deaths.  If  the  infant  is  a  girl,  her 
coming  is  not  welcomed  and  she  is  often  quietly  de- 
spatched, not  so  much  through  heartlessness  as  because 
the  family  is  too  poor  to  support  her  until  marriage- 
able, and  unwilling  to  sell  her  to  be  a  domestic  slave 


42  DAWN  ON  THE  HILLS  OF  T'ANG 

or  for  a  life  of  shame.  A  boy^s  advent  is  a  source  of 
great  gladness,  as  in  him  are  the  sinews  of  family 
strength  and  of  service  to  parental  post-mortem 
necessities.  Marriages  do  not  follow  betrothal  at 
the  early  age  common  in  India,  yet  girls  often  be- 
come mothers  at  too  early  a  period  for  their  off- 
spring's physical  good.  The  ceremonies  are  natu- 
rally joyful  to  a  company  who  usually  pay  a  good 
fee  and  expect  to  get  their  money  back  through 
feasting.  As  for  the  bride,  this  ceremony  ushers  her 
into  a  life  made  bitter  by  bondage  to  a  notoriously 
stern  and  capricious  mother-in-law.  Thousands 
commit  suicide  either  just  before  marriage  or  after  a 
few  days  of  service  under  such  a  vixen.  Death  and 
its  subsequent  funeral  are,  par  excellence,  the  events 
of  Chinese  experience.  A  wedding  is  a  quiet  per- 
formance in  comparison.  For  days — forty-nine,  if 
the  family  can  afford  it — priestly  bowlings,  music 
from  a  pandemoniac  band,  feasting  and  revelry 
reign,  and  then  comes  the  funeral  procession  with 
its  many  bearers  and  beggars,  its  mourners  clothed 
in  white  sackcloth,  and  the  demon-appeasing  cere- 
monies. This  experience  plunges  a  family  in  debt, 
often  for  years,  but  through  fear  of  the  now  power- 
ful spirit,  no  one  dares  spare  in  this  crisis  of  filial 
piety. 

3.  In  the  cities  the  environment  varies  somewhat 
from  the  above.  A  high,  often  crenellated  wall 
pierced  by  great  gates,  which  are  surmounted  by 
watch-towers  or  defended  by  a  semicircular  enceinte, 
shuts  out  from  the  traveller's  view  everything  except 
a  few  flag-poles  marking  temples  and  official  ya-mdns. 
Mounting  this  wall  one  sees  great  expanses  of  tile- 
covered  roofs,  threaded  by  narrow  streets  and  shaded 
by  many  trees  or  summer  mattings.  As  one  goes 
through  the  main  streets,  bustle  and  industry  are 
everywhere  apparent.  Itinerant  vendors  of  various 
commodities  frequent  the  side-streets,  and  shout  out 
the  articles  sold  or  indicate  them  by  a  variety  of 
instruments  of  percussion,  so  that  modest  women  may 


**  THE  REAL  CHIMAMA^**  43 

come  to  their  gates  and  buy.  At  night  the  manifold 
noises  of  day  fade  out  into  the  stridulous  quarrelling 
of  women  and  the  voice  of  the  peacemaker,  and  soon 
after  nine  o'clock  silence  reigns,  save  for  the  barking 
of  dogs,  the  shouts  of  private  watchmen,  the  rattles 
and  gongs  of  the  police,  and  the  monotonous  cry  of 
the  cake-seller  as  he  visits  the  opium  dens  of  a  sleep- 
ing city. 

City  homes  are  usually  of  brick  or  adobe,  and  con- 
tain within  a  single  large  court  a  number  of  build- 
ings divided  up  into  family  rooms.  There  is  thus  a 
one-story  tenement-life  problem  there,  unless  the 
court  is  occupied  by  a  large  family  or  part  of  a  clan. 
Some  of  these  abodes  are  luxurious,  but  the  majority 
have  only  beds  or  brick  platforms  for  sleeping,  a  few 
chairs  or  tables,  one  clock  perhaps,  or  several  if  they 
can  be  afforded,  some  wall  scrolls,  red  boxes  contain- 
ing clothing,  a  few  vessels  for  cooking,  and  recep- 
tacles for  flour,  rice,  etc. 

The  city  is  likewise  the  habitat  of  two  numerous 
classes  of  social  parasites.  The  beggars  are  often  an 
organized  fraternity,  working  according  to  fixed  rules 
under  a  beggar  king.  Howling  most  lugubriously 
in  stores  or  private  hall-ways,  or  following  one  on 
the  street,  they  cannot  well  be  disposed  of  until  the 
usual  dole  is  given  ;  and  woe  betide  the  person  who 
mortally  offends  one  of  them,  for  he  can  wreak  dire 
vengeance  on  his  enemy  by  committing  suicide  or 
seriously  injuring  himself  at  the  offender's  gate. 
The  thief  is  a  terror  to  the  unarmed  citizen,  and  as  the 
police  and  watchmen  announce  their  whereabouts  by 
much  noise,  he  is  rarely  captured,  and  so  proceeds  to 
dig  through  walls  and  terrorize  a  street  by  raids, 
often  repeated  many  nights  in  succession.  Unfortu- 
nately for  them,  when  serious  crime  of  any  sort  can- 
not be  ferreted  out  and  a  victim  to  the  majesty  of  the 
law  is  needed,  the  head  thief-catcher  usually  selects 
his  victim  from  their  ranks. 

Blind  beggars,  lepers  in  the  south,  and  cripples  of 
every  degree,  also  abound  in  the  cities,  though  the^ 


44  DAWN  ON  THE  HILLS  OF  T'ANG 

can  hardly  be  classed  as  social  parasites.  For  these 
and  other  unfortunates,  asylums  are  established  in 
many  populous  centres.  While  foundling  institutions 
in  their  best  estate  somewhat  resemble  ours,  their  other 
asylums  are  mainly  shelters  from  which  the  inmates 
go  forth  by  day,  sometimes  in  bands,  to  beg  a  pre- 
carious living.  The  financial  support  of  such  places 
depends  largely  upon  persons  who  thereby  lay  up 
merit  for  themselves,  or  who  expect  through  their 
charity  to  receive  an  honorary  title  or  literary  degree, 
and  upon  levies  paid  by  the  salt  -  merchants.  No 
native  asylum  for  lunatics  exists  ;  if  violent,  they  are 
kept  manacled  in  inner  rooms  at  home,  or  left  lying 
by  the  highway,  bound  hand  and  foot.  The  harm- 
lessly insane,  whether  men  or  women,  are  allowed  to 
roam  abroad,  sometimes  in  a  nude  condition.  Gov- 
ernment aid  is  often  furnished  to  the  poor  in  times 
of  famine,  or  when  rebellion  drives  villagers  into 
cities,  as  lawlessness  is  thus  diminished.  It  also 
aids  many  aged  persons  to  earn  a  livelihood  by  grant- 
ing them  the  right  to  vend  salt  without  a  license, 
thus  underselling  the  holders  of  the  government 
salt  monopoly.  Charity  also  takes  the  supposedly 
very  meritorious  form  of  furnishing  coffins  for  dead 
paupers. 

3.  The  government  and  laios  of  China  are,  in  the 
main,  well  calculated  to  secure  peace  and  the  ends  of 
justice;  this,  however,  is  true  theoretically  rather 
than  in  fact.  The  Emperor,  who  is  the  Son  of  Heaven 
and  father  of  his  subjects,  daily  meets  his  Grand 
Cabinet  between  four  and  six  A.  m.  Business  is  passed 
down  by  this  Cabinet  to  the  boards  of  Civil  Office, 
Revenue,  Ceremonies  (including  religion).  War, 
Punishment,  Works,  Admiralty,  and  Foreign  Affairs, 
or  the  Wai-wu  Pu.  Thence  so  much  of  it  as  is  neces- 
sary proceeds  through  a  perfect  network  of  greater 
and  lesser  officials  to  the  provinces,  districts,  and 
hamlets  of  the  Empire.  Theoretically  regarded,  the 
government  is  an  absolute  monarchy  ;  yet  because 
of  the  universal  knowledge  of  the  principles  of  gov- 


**THE  REAL   CHINAMAN"  45 

erning  contained  in  Confucian  literature,  the  influ- 
ence of  the  literati,  and  the  alertness  of  the  Censors, 
this  power  is  greatly  limited. 

Administrators  of  laiu,  except  in  small  villages — 
and  often  there  also — are  graduates  who  have  passed 
the  civil-service  examinations,  and  so  constitute  an 
aristocracy  of  learning.  Special  fitness  to  rule  is  not 
considered.  Office  is  rather  the  goal  toward  which, 
from  the  day  that  the  boy  began  to  nien  sliu  tso  huan 
— study  books  to  become  an  official — he  has  for  long 
years  been  struggling  through  first,  second,  and  most 
likely  third  degree  examinations,  with  their  grada- 
tions of  buttons  and  much  coveted  honors.  This 
ordeal  passed,  he  finds  himself  in  office  with  a  small 
salary,  many  hungry  subordinates,  and  prevalent  cor- 
ruption through  which  to  pay  expenses  and  become 
wealthy.  What  wonder  that,  backed  by  a  host  of 
underlings,  known  as  his  "  claws,''  taxes  speedily 
increase,  the  court,  in  which  he  is  judge  and  jury, 
becomes  the  scene  of  bribery  and  torture,  and  the 
''^hell'' — prison — to  which  he  sentences  obdurate  or 
poverty-stricken  litigants  loosens  its  grasp  only  to 
surrender  its  victims  to  the  grave.  The  Chinese  soon 
learn  the  moral  :  Avoid  lawsuits,  submit  to  petty 
extortion  without  a  murmur,  be  a  man  of  peace,  and 
as  for  vengeance,  trust  to  the  proverb,  '*  One  life  as 
an  official  [is  sufficient  to  condemn  to]  seven  lives  of 
beggary  [in  the  future  world].'' 

Industrial  Life  of  the  Empire.— 1.  While  caste 
is  unknown  in  China,  there  are  gradations  in  soci- 
ety. A  native  writer  has  thus  described  these  gra- 
dations :  '^  First  the  scholar :  because  mind  is  supe- 
rior to  wealth,  and  it  is  the  intellect  that  distin- 
guishes man  above  the  lower  orders  of  beings,  and 
enables  him  to  provide  food  and  raiment  and  shelter 
for  himself  and  for  other  creatures.  Second,  the 
farmer :  because  the  mind  cannot  act  without  the 
body,  and  the  body  cannot  exist  without  food ;  so 
that  farming  is  essential  to  the  existence  of  man, 
especially  in  civilized  society.     Third,  the  mechanic  : 


46  DAJVN  ON  THE  HILLS  OF  T'ANG 

because,  next  to  food,  shelter  is  a  necessity,  and  the 
man  who  builds  a  house  comes  next  in  honor  to  the 
man  who  provides  food.  Fourth,  the  tradesman : 
because,  as  society  increases  and  its  wants  are  multi- 
plied, men  to  carry  on  exchange  and  barter  become  a 
necessity,  and  so  the  merchant  comes  into  existence. 
His  occupation — shaving  both  sides,  the  producer 
and  consumer — tempts  him  to  act  dishonestly  ;  hence 
his  low  grade.  Fifth,  the  soldier  stands  last  and 
lowest  in  the  list,  because  his  business  is  to  destroy 
and  not  to  build  up  society.  He  consumes  what 
others  produce,  but  produces  nothing  himself  that 
can  benefit  mankind.  He  is,  perhaps,  a  necessary 
evil." 

In  addition  to  the  above  gradations,  one  should 
remember  that  the  descendants  of  Confucius  con- 
stitute a  species  of  nobility,  and  that  the  Manchus  of 
rank,  especially  members  of  the  Imperial  clan,  are 
also  held  in  honor.  Neither  of  the  above  classes, 
nor,  much  less,  the  priesthoods  of  the  prevailing 
religions,  attempt  to  hold  the  people  in  subjugation; 
hence  the  Chinese  possess  a  freedom  that  is  remark- 
able. 

2.  The  industries  of  the  Empire  are  carried  on  with 
a  good  assortment  of  tools,  but  with  few  machines. 
This  means  that  manual  labor  is  everywhere  pre- 
dominant, though  in  agriculture  and  transportation, 
beasts  are  often  used,  animals  of  different  sorts,  or 
animals  and  men  or  women,  sometimes  uniting  their 
forces  to  draw  ploughs  or  vehicles.  In  mining,  shafts 
were  sunk  only  to  slight  depths  until  recently,  partly 
because  it  was  thought  that  it  would  incense  the 
dragon  and  disturb  the  terrestrial  influences.  That 
modern  mining  methods  introduced  by  foreigners  do 
not  bring  disaster,  is  a  severe  blow  that  is  helping 
to  destroy  superstition. 

Wages  are  naturally  low  and  competition  severe. 
From  six  to  twelve  cents  will  hire  an  ordinary  laborer 
for  a  day,  while  artisans  can  be  had  for  from  twelve 
to  twenty-five  cents.     As  nearly  every  adult  is  mar- 


*' THE  REAL  CHINAMAN**  4> 

ried  and  has  children,  economy  of  the  strictest  sort 
must  be  practised,  and  Western  machines  and  means 
of  transportation  are  sorely  dreaded  in  consequence. 
The  "dried-meat  money ^^  of  a  graduate  teacher — 
one  must  not  speak  of  salary  to  such  a  personage — is 
$100,  more  or  less,  per  annum. 

3.  Trade  guilds  and  unions  are  more  pervasive 
than  in  the  Occident,  extending  even  to  beggars  and 
thieves.  Anyone  caught  stealing  who  does  not 
belong  to  the  guild  is  doubly  punished  ;  and  no 
member  would  think  of  entering  a  house  that  had 
been  insured  by  the  union  against  larceny  for  a  suita- 
ble premium.  Non-unionists  in  any  trade  are  often 
suppressed  by  the  bamboo,  while  the  guild  cares  for 
its  own  members  in  life  and  death,  often  against  the 
strong  though  ineffective  opposition  of  magistrates. 
Yet  with  such  combinations  of  labor  and  with  over- 
crowded *'  multitudes  ever  on  the  brink  of  destitution, 
China  has  no  lapsed  masses  in  her  teeming  cities^  nor 
agrarian  outrages  in  her  country  districts/' 

Amusements  and  Festivals. — 1.  "Climbing  a 
tree  to  hunt  for  fish  "  describes  the  attempt  to  dis- 
cuss the  a7nusements  of  many  Chinese  whose  life  is 
"all  work  and  no  play.''  Still,  even  the  busiest 
John  occasionally  unbends,  especially  in  winter. 
Children  play  at  hop-scotch,  kick  marbles  about, 
spin  a  sort  of  humming  spool  in  the  air  and  use  a 
thousand  and  one  different  games  and  toys.  Women 
amuse  themselves  by  playing  cards  and  dominoes, 
gossiping,  and  visiting.  Kite-flying,  a  species  of  bat- 
tledore and  shuttlecock,  the  feet  being  the  battledore, 
acrobatic  performances  and  juggling,  cricket  and 
quail-fights,  and  two  forms  of  chess  afford  men  their 
chief  amusements.  The  whole  community  is  fond  of 
theatrical  exhibitions,  drawn  out  for  three  days  and 
nights  sometimes,  Punch-and-Judy  shows,  and  gam- 
bling in  multitudinous  forms.  Feasts  are  restricted  to 
men,  and  the  itinerant  story-teller  rarely  has  others  in. 
his  booth.  Athletic  sports  are  regarded  as  a  doubt- 
ful and  difficult  way  of  amusing  one's  self,  though  can- 


48  DAIVN  ON  THE  HILLS  OF  T'ANG 

didates    for    military  degrees  are    often  very  well 
trained. 

2.  Entire  absence  of  a  hebdomadal  division  of  time 
with  its  regularly  recurring  Sabbath  of  rest,  has  its 
partial  compensation  in  the  many  festivals  of  the 
Chinese,  only  the  most  prominent  of  which  can  be 
mentioned.  New  Year  is  the  holiday  of  the  Empire 
and  the  universal  birthday,  when  everyone  adds  a 
year  to  his  age.  In  preparation  for  it  accounts  have 
been  squared,  houses  cleaned,  new  clothes  bought  or 
hired  for  the  day,  and  doors  adorned  with  mottoes  of 
happy  omen,  giving  the  town  the  appearance  of  being 
painted  red.  On  the  day  itself  carts  or  chairs  rush 
through  the  narrow  streets  carrying  well-dressed  men 
intent  on  ''  worshipping  the  year "  through  calls  of 
ceremony,  and  for  once  the  sounds  of  trade  and  busi- 
ness are  utterly  hushed.  Next  in  importance  is  the 
chHng  ming,  or  festival  of  tombs,  falling  usually  in 
April.  Ancestral  graves  are  put  in  order  by  the 
family,  who  go  in  pilgrimage  thither  to  offer  food, 
money,  and  servants,  made  of  paper,  to  the  shades  of 
the  deceased.  White  streamers  flutter  from  the 
tumuli  and  burning  incense  envelops  the  landscape 
with  a  filmy  haze.  The  dragon  hoat  festival,  on  the 
fifth  day  of  the  fifth  moon,  is  the  boatmen's  holiday, 
when  amid  the  beating  of  drums  and  gongs  gayly 
decked  boats  are  rowed  up  and  down  the  rivers  and 
their  occupants  indulge  in  racing,  while  the  crowds 
along  shore  cheer  and  reward  the  victorious  crews. 
The  seventh  moon  witnesses  the  feast  of  ''All  Souls/' 
when  clothes,  food,  and  drink  are  offered  to  hungry 
ghosts,  who  have  no  male  descendants  to  minister  to 
their  needs,  and  also  a  festival  in  honor  of  the  Seven 
Sisters,  or  Pleiades,  the  patron  saints  of  women. 
The  fifteenth  of  the  eighth  month  is  sacred  to  the 
moon,  and  on  that  night  all  China  is  ablaze  with 
every  conceivable  variety  of  lantern,  moon-cakes  are 
exchanged  between  families,  and  everywhere  are  fire- 
crackers and  candles  galore.  The  ninth  of  the  ninth 
moon  concludes  the  Tcite-flying  feast.     While  during 


*' THE  REAL  CHINAMAN**  49 

the  days  preceding  the  sky  has  been  flecked  with 
clouds  of  tailless  kites  provided  with  ^olian-harp 
strings  and  the  children  have  looked  upon  it  as  sport 
merely,  graybeards  have  been  doing  their  best  to  so 
manipulate  their  kites  as  to  cut  the  string  and  cause 
all  the  family  ill  luck  to  soar  away  with  the  kite. 

The  Chinese  as  Painted  by  Themselves. — 
Their  proverbs  furnish  the  most  trustworthy  portrait 
of  the  Chinese,  as  in  the  Orient  such  sayings  are 
regarded  as  axiomatic  statements  of  indisputable 
truth.  In  selecting  these,  we  have  not  '^  in  painting 
a  snake  added  legs/'  i.e.,  exaggerated  traits  of  com- 
mon life  ;  we  have  simply  *^  allowed  the  sick  man  to 
furnish  his  own  perspiration. '^ 

1.  Gliildren.  The  value  of  boys  vs.  that  of  girls  is 
expressed  by  the  proverb,  *' Eighteen  Lohan  [goddess- 
like] daughters  are  not  equal  to  a  boy  with  a  crooked 
foot."  Once  born,  struggle  is  demanded  from 
parents,  as  '^  A  child  but  a  foot  long  requires  three 
feet  of  cloth'''  for  its  earth-trousers.  Yet  they 
gladly  endure  their  added  cares ;  for  ^*^  "What  fastens 
to  the  heart-strings  and  pulls  on  the  liver  are  one's 
sons  and  daughters."  As  children  advance  in  years, 
remember  the  saying,  '*  If  you  love  your  son,  give 
him  plenty  of  the  cudgel  ;  if  you  hate  him,  cram  him 
with  dainties."  Unluckily  this  discipline  is  spasmod- 
ic as  shown  by  the  definition,  ^'  Cloudy  day — leisure 
to  beat  the  children."  Discipline  persevered  in,  how- 
ever, has  its  reward  ;  '^  As  the  twig  is  bent,  the  mul- 
berry tree  grows." 

2.  Loohi7ig  out  into  life.  The  parent  planning 
for  the  boy's  future  sees  two  possibilities,  learning 
and  manual  labor.  In  favor  of  the  scholar's  life,  he 
recalls  the  maxim,  '^  Better  not  be,  than  be  nothing," 
and  also  that  "No  pleasure  equals  the  pleasure  of 
study,"  since  "Thorough  acquaintance  with  the 
Four  Books  and  Five  Classics  procures  for  the 
family  emolument  from  heaven."  If  this  course  is 
chosen,  his  son  must  not  be  a  pedant,  "  Gnawing 
sentences  and  chewing  characters  ; "  much  less  a  B, 

4 


go  DAWN  ON-  THE  HILLS   OF  T'ANG 

A.,  who  is  '^  A  mere  bag  of  false  characters/'  since  the 
superficial  scholar  is  ^^  Like  a  sheep  dressed  in  a  tiger's 
skin."  '^  To  make  a  man  of  yourself,  you  must  toil ; 
if  you  don't,  you  won't/' 

If  the  boy  is  to  be  a  laborer,  let  him  remember  that 
"  By  perseverance  one  may  grind  an  iron  anchor  into 
a  needle/'  and  that  ''  Any  kind  of  life  on  earth  is 
better  than  being  under  ground."  He  must  expect 
little  respite  from  toil,  since  "  No-work  is  two  fairies," 
and  "  To  be  entirely  at  leisure  for  one  day,  is  to  be 
for  one  day  an  Immortal."  If  he  labors  without 
skill,  he  will  be  unsuccessful,  ''  A  blind  fowl  picking 
at  random  after  worms." 

3.  Marriage  and  family  life.  '^When  sons  are 
paired  and  daughters  mated,  the  principal  business 
of  life  is  accomplished"  by  parents  ;  not  to  so  dispose 
of  a  daughter  is  dangerous,  since  "  When  a  daughter 
is  grown  up,  she  is  like  smuggled  salt " — liable  to  be 
seized.  As  "  Nine  women  in  ten  are  jealous,"  and  as 
*'It  is  impossible  to  be  more  malevolent  than  a 
woman/'  the  husband  manages  her  on  the  principle 
that  "  Nothing  will  frighten  a  wilful  wife  but  a  beat- 
ing." Should  either  party  die,  ''^  A  widow  does  not 
stay  so  more  than  a  month,"  and  as  for  the  widower, 
'^  A  wife  is  like  a  wall  of  mud  bricks  ;  take  off  one 
row,  and  there  is  another  beneath  it."  Indeed,  if 
left  childless  remarriage  is  necessary  inasmuch  as 
*^  There  are  three  things  that  are  unfilial,  and  to  have 
no  posterity  is  the  greatest  of  these."  Notwithstand- 
ing these  facts  and  the  saying  that  "  Nobody's  family 
can  hang  up  the  sign.  Nothing  the  matter  here,"  it 
is  still  true  that  while  ^'  Customs  vary  in  every  place, 
there  is  no  place  like  home." 

4.  Moral  maxims.  According  to  the  proverb, 
'^  Good  men  are  scarce."  Some  are  "  Lying  ma- 
chines," others  ^'  Black  hearts  and  rotten  livers,^' 
while  everyone  must  confess  at  night  that  "  In  pass- 
ing over  the  day  in  the  usual  way,  there  are  four 
ounces  of  sin."  Has  one  been  impure?  ''Of  ten 
thousand  evils  lewdness  is  the  head/^     I3  lie  hypo- 


"  THE  REAL  CHINAMAN'^  5I 

critical?  '^  He  has  the  moutli  of  a  Buddha,  the  heart 
of  a  siiake/^  Avoid  *^'The  three  great  evils,  lechery, 
gambling,  and  opium-smoking/'  Do  not  say  ^'  The 
truth  is  anotlier  name  for  stupidity,'^  nor  excuse  your 
wrong-doing,  if  poor,  by  the  proverb,  "  The  poorer 
one  gets,  the  more  devils  one  meets.'" 

Eemember,  rather,  that  "  The  best  and  strongest 
man  in  the  world  finds  that  he  cannot  escape  the  two 
words,  N"o  continuance,^'  and  tliat  ''  An  upright 
heart  does  not  fear  demons."  '^  Good  men  have  fire 
three  feet  above  their  heads  ;  evil  spirits  will  do  well 
to  avoid  it.''  Then  '^  Relying  upon  Heaven,  eat 
your  rice/'  and  **Pray  to  the  gods,  as  if  they  were 
present." 


IV 

RELIGIONS   OF  THE   CHINESE 

While  the  Chinese  commonly  speak  of  **  The  Three 
Religions ''  of  the  Empire,  meaning  thereby  Confu- 
cianism, Buddhism,  and  Taoism,  one  must  not  imagine 
that  all  their  religion  is  included  under  these  names, 
nor  yet  that  any  person  is  an  adherent  of  any  single 
one  of  these  systems  to  the  exclusion  of  the  others. 
Each  sect  has  borrowed  from  the  other  two,  and  all 
have  appropriated  much  from  primitive  religions 
existing  from  the  earliest  times.  In  discussing  the 
topic,  the  order  followed  is  a  chronological  one, 
though  Taoism  precedes  Confucianism  solely  on  the 
ground  of  Lao-tzu's  superiority  in  age,  and  not  be- 
cause it  was  fully  developed  before  Confucianism  had 
become  well  established.  Mohammedanism,  though 
widely  held,  is  reserved  for  the  next  chapter. 

Nature-worship. — 1.  That  fetiches  are  powerful 
and  prevalent  is  evidenced  by  charms  of  various  sorts, 
stones, — especially  from  the  holy  mountain,  T'ai  Shan, 
— sacred  trees  and  fountains,  and  the  employment  of 
wormwood  and  sedge,  as  the  rowan-tree  and  woodbine 
were  formerly  used  in  England.  If  convinced  that 
any  object  is  ling,  possessed  of  some  mystic  potency, 
no  amount  of  reasoning  is  likely  to  prevent  the  pos- 
sessor from  seeking  its  assistance,  or  devoting  to  it 
Bome  paltry  offering. 

2.  Many  features  of  totem  worship  are  noticed  in 
connection  with  special  trees  and  animals,  but  the 
clearest  case  of  such  reverence  is  that  shown  to  the 
dragon,  the  grand  totem  of  the  Empire,  notwith- 
standing the  fact  that  he  is  only  an  imaginary  being. 
These  creatures — there  are  three  prominent  dragons, 

52 


RELIGIONS   OF  THE   CHINESE  53 

one  of  the  sky,  another  of  the  sea,  and  a  third  of  the 
marshes — may  have  found  in  the  fossil  iguanodon 
their  prototype.  The  only  truly  orthodox  species, 
that  of  the  sky,  *'  has  the  head  of  a  camel,  the  horns 
of  a  deer,  eyes  of  a  rabbit,  ears  of  a  cow,  neck  of  a 
snake,  belly  of  a  frog,  scales  of  a  carp,  claws  of  a 
hawk,  and  palm  of  a  tiger.  On  each  side  of  the 
mouth  are  whiskers,  and  its  beard  contains  a  bright 
pearl ;  the  breath  is  sometimes  changed  into  water 
and  sometimes  into  fire,  and  its  voice  is  like  the 
jingling  of  copper  pans.''  He  is  all  powerful  and 
is  associated  in  thought  with  the  Emperor,  who  sits 
on  the  dragon  throne,  has  as  his  ensign  the  dragon 
flag,  and  at  death  "  ascends  upon  the  dragon  to  be  a 
guest  on  high.''  But  the  common  people  are  also 
deeply  influenced  by  him,  as  f  eng  shui  depends  upon 
the  right  relation  of  celestial  and  terrestrial  influ- 
ences presided  over  by  the  dragon  and  the  tiger. 
Hence  they  pay  him  homage  in  caves,  which  are  his 
favorite  places  of  resort,  worshipping  in  lieu  of  him 
a  lizard  caught  in  the  cave,  or  images  of  gods  placed 
there  for  the  purpose. 

Another  apparent  case  of  totemism  is  found  in  the 
cyclical  designation  of  years,  twelve  animals,  the  dog, 
pig,  rat,  ox,  tiger,  etc.,  being  used  in  rotation  five 
times  to  indicate  the  sixty  years  of  a  cycle.  A  fre- 
quent way  of  asking  one's  age  is  to  inquire  to  what 
animal  one  belongs.  This  custom  is  not  totemistic, 
however,  but  is  useful  in  fortune-telling  and  indicates 
that  persons  born  during  the  year  denoting  the  speci- 
fied animal  should  not  be  present  when  certain  events 
are  to  transpire,  lest  some  deadly  influence  should 
be  visited  upon  them.  Obviously,  also,  it  would  be 
highly  unfortunate  for  a  man  born  in  the  year  of  the 
rat  to  marry  a  woman  belonging  to  the  dog,  as  in  the 
Chinese  view  they  would  have  '^a  rat  and  dog  time 
of  it,"  and  the  husband  be  worsted.  After  death  a 
man's  relation  to  his  animal  seems  to  be  truly  totem- 
istic, as  the  dead  must  carry  to  the  lower  world  a 
chest  of  money  to  propitiate  this  animal,  in  order 


54  DAIVN  ON  THE  HILJ-9  OF  T'ANG 

to  prevent  it  from  making  liim  carry  the  animal 
about. 

3.  Animal  worship  outside  of  totemistio  lines  is 
very  prevalent.  Aside  from  the  dragon,  who  domi- 
nates the  scaly  race,  two  other  imaginary  creatures, 
the  lin,  a  sort  of  cross  between  the  stag  and  unicorn 
and  head  of  hairy  animals,  and  the  feng,  or  phoenix, 
pre-eminent  among  the  feathered  race,  are  highly 
reverenced.  To  complete  the  quinary  system  of  an- 
cient Chinese  naturalists,  the  representative  of  the 
shelly  tribe,  the  tortoise,  and  man,  sovereign  of  naked 
animals,  must  be  added  ;  these  also  are  reverenced. 
Other  animals  worshipped  are  the  following  :  The 
monkey,  known  as  "  His  Excellency,  the  Holy  King  ; '' 
the  fox,  worshipped  by  mandarins  as  having  the  seals 
of  high  office  under  his  control,  and  reverenced  by 
the  people  because  of  his  supposed  relation  to  some 
diseases  ;  the  tiger,  worshipped  by  gamblers  for  good 
luck  under  the  name,  "  His  Excellency,  the  Grasp- 
ing Cash  Tiger,^'  and  by  mothers  in  behalf  of  sick 
children ;  the  dog,  worshipped  before  childbirth  by 
women  who  were  born  in  the  year  belonging  to  the 
dog  ;  the  hedgehog,  regarded  as  a  living  god  of 
wealth ;  and  snakes,  certain  of  which  are  deemed 
divine.  While  not  worshipped,  the  magpie,  crow, 
cat,  hen,  swallow,  bat,  and  owl  are  creatures  of  good 
or  ill  omen,  and  are,  therefore,  to  be  carefully 
watched. 

4.  The  worship  of  ancestors,  forming  the  back- 
bone of  Confucianism  in  its  practical  outcome,  is  the 
Gibraltar  of  Chinese  belief,  before  which  Christianity 
stands  almost  powerless.  Its  central  position  is  thus 
described  by  J.  Dyer  Ball :  ^'Ancestral  worship  is  filial 
piety  gone  mad.  True  to  their  practice  of  retaining 
customs  and  habits  for  centuries  and  millenniums,  the 
Chinese  nation  has  not  given  up  this  most  ancient 
form  of  worship  ;  and  the  original  worship  of  ances- 
tors, like  the  older  formations  of  rocks  on  the  earth's 
surface,  is  strong  as  the  everlasting  hills,  and,  though 
overlaid  by  other  cults,  as  the  primary  rocks  are  by 


FAMILY    ANCESTRAL   TABLETS    IN   A    CHINESE   HOME 


,!-;»€»«' 


A    GROUP    OF    CHINESE    OFFICIALS 


RELIGIONS  OF  THE   CHINESE  55 

other  strata,  it  is  still  at  the  foundation,  nearly  all 
the  other  methods  of  worship  being  later  additions 
and  accretions.  The  worshipping  of  ancestors  thns 
nnderlies  most  of  their  religion,  and  many  of  their 
every-day  acts  and  deeds.  '  Social  customs,  judicial 
decisions,  appointments  to  the  office  of  Prime  Minis- 
ter, and  even  the  succession  to  the  throne  are  influ- 
enced by  it.''  .  .  .  This  worship  is  the  only  one 
that  is  entitled  to  the  name  of  the  National  Religion 
of  China,  as  the  dead  are  the  objects  of  worship  of 
poor  and  rich,  young  and  old,  throughout  the  length 
and  breadth  of  this  immense  Empire.''^ 

Tlie  basis  of  Chinese  ancestral  worship  is  found  in 
the  belief  that  a  man  possesses  three  souls,  which 
after  death  reside  in  the  ancestral  tablet,  in  the  tomb 
and  in  Hades  respectively.  These  souls  have  the 
same  needs  after  death  as  before,  the  satisfaction  of 
which  rests  with  survivors,  especially  the  eldest  son  of 
the  deceased.  To  satisfy  these  needs,  clothing,  house- 
hold articles,  money,  etc.,  made  of  paper,  must  be 
transmitted  to  the  spirit-world  through  fire,  thus  be- 
coming invisible  and  so  suited  to  invisible  spirits, 
while  food  can  be  immediately  partaken  in  its  essence 
by  the  sj^irits.  The  government  of  the  lower  world 
is  the  counterpart  of  that  in  China,  and  officials  of 
Hades  are  open  to  bribery  and  look  upon  the  out- 
ward appearance,  just  as  in  earthly  ya-mens.  This 
not  only  calls  for  much  paper  money,  but  also  for  the 
assistance  of  a  corrupt  horde  of  priests  who  merci- 
lessly fleece  survivors.  The  system  presupposes  that 
disembodied  spirits  are  more  powerful  than  in  life, 
and  if  their  wants  are  not  fully  supplied,  they  can, 
and  probably  will,  bring  varied  calamities  upon  their 
posterity.  Fear  thus  becomes  the  all-powerful  spur 
to  filial  piety  toward  dead  ancestors. 

One  must  admit  that  this  luorsliip  has  henefited 
China  by  inculcating  a  reverence  for  parents,  which 
has  thence  reaehed  upward  and  caused  national  respect 
for  rulers  and  emperors.  It  has  also  made  women 
honored,  especially  the  wife  |  so  that  but  one  tablet 


DAWN  ON  THE  HILLS  OF  T*ANG 


being  allowed  for  mother,  there  is  only  one  wife,  even 
in  polygamous  households,  the  rest  being  concubines. 
Chinese  women  thus  rank  higher  in  domestic  posi- 
tion than  those  of  any  other  Asiatic  or  heathen  race. 
On  the  other  hand,  ancestral  worship  is  China's 
bane,  as  well  as  a  sin  against  God.  It  is  a  useless  ex- 
pense— $151,752,000  per  annum,  according  to  Dr. 
x  ates^s  careful  estimate — to  a  people  who  sorely  need 
every  dollar.  It  congests  population,  instead  of  al- 
lowing colonization  to  sparsely  settled  sections  of  the 
Empire,  since  one  must  be  buried  near  the  ancestral 
hall  or  among  relatives.  For  the  same  reason,  it  sub- 
stitutes for  love  of  country  in  general  a  love  of  home, 
making  the  people  extremely  selfish  and  provincial. 
Early  marriages  and  polygamy  are  very  largely  charge- 
able to  the  desire  for  male  offspring  to  minister 
to  parents  after  death.  The  worship  often  makes 
such  exorbitant  exactions  on  the  poor  that  pressing 
wants  of  the  living  are  neglected  in  consequence. 
Individual  liberty  is  apt  to  be  destroyed  by  the  ex- 
treme views  of  parental  authority,  the  son  fearing  to 
espouse  Christianity,  for  example,  lest  death  might 
be  the  penalty  for  failure  to  participate  in  idolatrous 
post-mortem  ceremonies.  Its  doctrine  of  parental 
divinities  of  great  power  drives  out  all  theories  of  di- 
vine retribution,  thus  substituting  parental  likes  and 
dislikes  for  eternal  principles.  And,  most  serious  of 
all,  dead  ancestors  are  put  in  the  place  of  the  one 
Father  and  Judge  of  all  men. 

5.  By  an  extension  of  the  above  worship,  China 
has  come  by  many  deified  heroes,  who  commonly  be- 
come gods  through  Imperial  decree.  Happily,  those 
thus  promoted  are  not  personifications  of  the  vices 
deified  by  ancient  Greece,  Rome,  and  India,  though 
they  are  often  men  of  blameworthy  life. 

6.  In  the  first  mention  of  religious  worship  found 
in  Chinese  history,  we  read  of  the  Emperor  Shun, 
'^  Thereafter  he  sacrificed  specially,  but  with  the  or- 
dinary forms,  to  Shang  Ti  ;  sacrificed  with  purity  to 
the  Six  Honored  Ones  ;  offered  appropriate  sacrifices 


RELIGIONS  OF  THE  CHINESE  57 


to  the  hills  and  rivers,  and  extended  his  worship  to 
the  host  of  spirits/'  Probably  in  the  earliest  times 
this  Shang  Ti,  or  Supreme  Euler,  often  called  Heaven, 
was  regarded  as  a  personal,  supreme  Being.  Though 
His  worship  still  survives,  it  can  be  engaged  in  only 
by  the  Emperor,  who,  as  Son  of  Heaven,  periodically 
offers  up  solemn  sacrifices,  especially  at  the  winter 
solstice.  It  is  the  prevalent  opinion  of  Western 
scholars  that  no  idea  of  personality  has  been  attached 
to  the  names  Heaven — T4en — and  ShangTi  for  many 
centuries,  though  a  few  recent  native  writers  are 
shaking  off  the  trammels  of  Chu  Fu-tztl  and  assert 
personality  of  those  terms.  So  far  as  Heaven  is  re- 
garded as  the  material  vault  of  azure,  Chinese  native 
worship  reaches  its  zenith  in  the  impressive  Imperial 
ceremonies  at  the  Altar  of  Heaven  in  Peking. 

Taoism. — 1.  Its  founder,  Lao-tzu,  the  Venerable 
Philosopher,  owes  his  title  quite  largely  to  Confu- 
cius's  use  of  it  after  their  famous  interview  in  517  B.C. 
His  surname  was  Li,  or  Plum,  his  name  Erh,  or  Ear, 
and  his  birthplace  in  the  eastern  corner  of  Ho-nan 
province.  Here  Li  first  saw  the  light  about  604  B.C., 
fifty-three  years  before  the  birth  of  Confucius.  After 
one  has  run  the  gauntlet  of  legend-mongers,  the  pos- 
sible facts  are  left  that  he  was  Keeper  of  Archives  at 
the  Imperial  Court,  was  interviewed  by  Confucius,  fore- 
saw the  inevitable  downfall  of  the  Chou  dynasty,  and 
went  into  retirement  in  consequence,  and  later  depart- 
ed to  a  far  country  of  the  West,  stopping  on  his  way 
with  the  keeper  of  the  northwestern  pass,  at  whose 
request  he  dictated  the  original  canon  of  Taoism,  the 
Tao-t^  Ching.  He  has  been  likened  to  the  Greek  Zeno 
and  the  French  Kousseau,  and  he  certainly  was  a  pro- 
testant  against  the  evils  of  his  age,  like  Luther.  Emi- 
nently practical  in  some  of  his  views,  he  was  on  the 
whole  a  transcendental  dreamer,  as  well  as  China's 
first  great  philosopher. 

2.  The  Scripture  of  Lao-tzfl,  tlie  Tao-te  Ching,  or 
Canon  of  Reason  and  Virtue,  contains  only  5,320 
characters,  which  can  be  read  in  thirty-six  minutes. 


58  DAWN  ON  THE  HILLS   OF  T'ANG 

It  is  thus  the  shortest  of  Sacred  Canons,  being  less 
than  half  the  length  of  St.  Mark's  Gosi^el.  The  dif- 
ficulty of  interpreting  the  book  may  be  guessed  from 
the  perplexity  of  translators  concerning  the  equivalent 
for  Tao,  which  has  been  rendered  Way,  Eeason, 
"Word,  Logos,  and  Nature,  and  also  from  the  terms  in 
which  the  treatise  itself  speaks  of  Tao.  Professor 
Douglas,  while  regarding  Way  as  the  best  single  equiv- 
alent, adds  :  "  But  Tao  is  more  than  the  way.  It  is 
the  way,  and  the  way-goer.  It  is  an  eternal  road  ; 
along  it  all  beings  and  things  walk  ;  but  no  being 
made  it,  for  it  is  being  itself  ;  it  is  everything  and 
nothing,  and  the  cause  and  effect  of  all.  All  things 
originate  from  Tao^  conform  to  Tao,  and  to  Tao  at 
last  they  return.''^  As  nearly  as  one  can  describe  it, 
Tao  seems  to  be  '^(1)  the  Absolute,  the  totality  of 
being  and  things  ;  (2)  the  phenomenal  world  and  its 
order;  and  (3)  the  ethical  nature  of  the  good  man 
and  the  principle  of  his  action. '^ 

Quits  practical  side  the  Tao-te  Ching  promulgates 
a  politico-ethical  system  by  which  Lao-tzu  attempts 
to  reform  the  Empire  by  wooing  the  people  back  to 
a  primitive  state  of  society.  Self-abnegation  is  the 
cardinal  rule  for  sovereign  and  subject  alike.  ^'  I 
have  three  precious  things  which  I  hold  fast  and 
prize,  viz,,  compassion,  economy,  and  humility.  Be- 
ing compassionate  I  can  be  brave,  being  economical 
I  can  be  liberal,  and  being  humble  I  can  become  the 
chief  of  men.''  In  the  amplification  following  this 
quotation,  Lao-tzti  shows  himself  to  be  the  Christian 
as  opposed  to  the  Confucian  Moses,  and  especially  in 
another  injunction  ^^  to  recompense  injury  with  kind- 
ness," to  which  Confucius  stoutly  objected. 

3.  Though  Lao-tzii  was  China's  Pythagoras,  "  the 
first  great  awakener  of  thought,"  later  Taoist  leaders 
degenerated,  until  Rationalism,  as  Taoism  has  been 
translated,  became  the  most  irrational  of  beliefs. 
Lieh  and  Chuang,  two  celebrated  Taoist  writers  of 
the  fifth  and  fourth  centuries,  B.C. — if  indeed  Lieh 
is  a  historical  character — did  more  than  their  master 


RELIGIONS  OF  THE  CHINESE  59 

to  illustrate  and  popularize  his  ideas.  The  former  so 
far  departed  from  Lao-tzu^s  spirit  that  he  taught 
Epicureanism.  Chuang,  on  the  other  hand,  after 
popularizing  Taoism,  came  to  doubt  differences  in 
motives  and  the  reality  of  personal  existence.  Life 
was  merely  a  series  of  phantasmata.  Thus  after 
dreaming  that  he  was  a  butterfly,  the  dazed  philos- 
opher asks,  '^  Was  the  vision  that  I  was  a  butterfly  a 
dream  or  a  reality  ?  or  am  I  now  a  butterfly  dream- 
ing that  I  am  Chuang-tzu  ? ''  Another  Taoist  writer, 
nameless,  though  probably  of  the  Sung  dynasty,  has 
given  to  his  sect  and  to  China  one  of  the  most  widely 
read  religious  books  of  the  Empire,  the  Kan  Ying 
P^ien,  or  Book  of  Eewards  and  Punishments.  So  far 
is  it  from  being  imaginative  or  fanciful  that  it  is 
little  else  than  a  list  of  virtues  and  vices  which  are 
to  be  cultivated  or  avoided  ;  since  for  great  faults 
twelve  years  are  deducted  from  one's  life  and  a  hun- 
dred days  for  small  faults.  It  is  thus  a  system  of 
moral  book-keeping  between  man  and  the  spirits,  the 
spirit  of  the  hearth  being  a  sort  of  detective  to  check 
np  the  facts. 

4.  But  to  other  leaders  and  writers  than  the  above, 
Taoism  owes  its  mvful  degradation.  Before  the  in- 
troduction of  Buddhism,  it  had  so  captured  the  Great 
Wall  Builder  that  he  despatched  two  expeditions, 
consisting  of  thousands  of  girls  and  young  men,  to 
the  golden  islands  of  the  blest  to  secure  from  the 
genii  the  draught  of  immortality.  From  that  time 
onward  it  gave  itself  increasingly  to  magic,  the  search 
for  the  philosopher's  stone,  the  elixir  vitse  and  pills 
of  immortality.  For  high  ideals  and  eternal  truths, 
it  gave  its  followers  senseless  shibboleths  to  ward  off 
evil  spirits,  and  no  less  harmful  moral  falsehoods  in 
the  shape  of  rituals  and  sacrifices  in  honor  of  a  host 
of  newly  created  gods  and  goddesses. 

5.  If  one  would  know  the  Taoism  of  to-day,  one 
has  only  to  follow  men  in  slate-colored  habit,  wearing 
caps  out  of  the  top  of  which  project  a  knot  of  hair, 
to  their  temples  or  communal  homes,  and  note  there 


6o  DA  WN  ON  THE  HILLS  OF  T  'ANG 

the  many  gods  ranging  from  Lao-tzii  and  his  compan- 
ions in  the  trinity  of  The  Three  Pure  Ones,  through 
the  powerful  Pearly  Emperor,  the  Bushel  Mother  of 
the  North  Star,  the  Chinese  Mars,  Kuan  Ti,  the  no 
less  noted  God  of  Literature,  the  everywhere-present 
God  of  Wealth, — Buddhism  also  claims  him, — down  to 
the  most  common  and  potent  deity  of  all,  the  cheap 
paper  kitchen  god,  found  near  the  hearth  of  nearly 
every  family  of  the  Empire.  Hardly  less  than  a  liv- 
ing deity  is  the  pope  of  Taoism,  who  has  his  abode 
in  the  picturesque  Lung  Hu  Shan — Dragon  and 
Tiger  mountains — of  Chiang-hsi,  whence,  by  Im- 
perial permission,  he  rules  the  Taoist  world. 

Other  proofs  of  the  power  of  this  faith  are  seen  in 
magic  scrawls  on  houses,  gates,  and  people,  in  Taoist 
fortune-tellers,  in  Cagliostros  not  a  few,  who  will  fur- 
nish purchasers  with  pills  of  immortality,  and  in  ten 
thousand  superstitions,  most  of  them  Taoist  in  origin, 
which  harass  millions  "  who  through  fear  of  death 
were  all  their  lifetime  subject  to  bondage."  Spirits 
above  and  spirits  below,  demons  on  the  right  hand 
and  on  the  left,  fears  in  life  and  terrors  at  death, 
drive  the  superstition-ridden  victim  to  the  supposed 
saviour,  the  Taoist  priest,  whose  costly  ministrations 
leave  one  to  despairingly  cry,  with  Queen  Katherine, 

''  Spirits  of  peace,  where  are  ye?  are  ye  all  gone? 
And  leave  me  here  in  wretchedness  behind  ye?  " 

Confucianism,   the    Sect  of  the    Lettered. — 

Confucius — the  Latinized  form  of  K^ung  Fu-tzu,  the 
Master  K^ung — is  the  ^'  Throneless  King  "  of  nearly 
twenty-five  centuries,  and  of  one-fourth  the  human 
race.  No  other  mere  man,  Buddha  not  excepted,  has 
had  so  extensive  an  influence  as  he,  nor  set  such  an 
ineffaceable  stamp  upon  a  race. 

1.  Some  items  from  Ms  life  will  help  the  reader  to 
understand  his  marvellous  power.  K^ung,  whose 
adult  name  was  Chung-ni,  was  born  in  551  B.C.,  in  a 
village  near  the  centre  of  what  is  now  Shan-tung 


RELIGIONS  OF  THE  CHINESE  6l 

province.  His  father  was  a  military  officer  dis- 
tinguished for  bravery  and  physical  strength,  figuring 
in  one  story  as  a  Samson  raising  a  closed  portcullis, 
thus  allowing  his  imprisoned  soldiers  to  escape.  He 
died  when  his  son  was  three  years  old,  and  his  mother, 
in  spite  of  straitened  circumstances,  took  charge  of  his 
education.  As  a  boy  he  delighted  to  '*  play  at  the  ar- 
rangement of  vessels  and  at  postures  of  ceremony.^' 

At  fifteen  he  *'  bent  his  mind  to  learning,"  and  be- 
came an  earnest  student  and  admirer  of  the  great 
characters  of  Chinese  history,  especially  Yao  and 
Shun.  Marrying  at  nineteen,  one  son  and  two  daugh- 
ters were  born  to  him,  whose  descendants  now  consti- 
tute a  fair-sized  city  in  the  home  of  their  great  ances- 
tor. Poverty  caused  the  young  man  to  fill  a  number 
of  petty  offices,  but  at  twenty-two  he  was  able  to  be- 
gin his  career  as  teacher,  surrounded  by  a  band  of  ad- 
miring and  earnest  students.  A  year  later  his  mother 
died,  and  Confucius  went  into  a  three  years'  mourn- 
ing, which  he  devoted  to  study  and  meditation. 
Later  we  see  him  and  his  disciples  in  his  native  state, 
except  for  short  intervals,  till  517  B.C.,  when  he  fled, 
as  did  his  Duke,  on  account  of  political  disorders. 

Sixteen  years  more  elapsed  before  his  great  oppor- 
tunity came  to  put  into  practical  execution  those 
theories  of  government  that  he  had  so  enthusiastically 
taught  his  3,000  followers.  Then,  at  the  age  of  fifty, 
he  became  governor  of  the  town  of  Chung-tu,  a  year 
later  was  made  Minister  of  Works  for  the  State,  and 
also  Minister  of  Crime,  and  for  three  years  so  con- 
ducted aifairs  that  we  are  told,  *^  He  strengthened  the 
ruling  house,  and  weakened  the  ministers  and  chiefs. 
A  transforming  government  went  abroad.  Dishon- 
esty and  dissoluteness  were  ashamed,  and  hid  their 
heads.  Loyalty  and  good  faith  became  the  character- 
istics of  the  men,  and  chastity  and  docility  those  of 
the  women.  Strangers  flocked  to  Lu  from  other 
states.""  The  jealousy  of  neighboring  principalities 
soon  invaded  this  Utopia,  and  a  lure  of  beautiful 
courtesans  and  fine  horses,  sent  by  a  plotting  marquis. 


62  DA  IVN  ON  THE  HILLS  OF  T'ANG 


caused  a  breach  between  the  Sage  and  his  ruler.  Ac- 
cordingly he  left  his  beloved  Lu  to  roam  among 
neighboring  states,  accompanied  by  his  disciples. 
Courted  by  some,  assailed  by  others,  he  journeyed  on, 
a  mystery  to  princelets,  who  were  too  small  to  per- 
ceive in  him  a  seer  and  sage. 

In  his  sixty-fifth  year  he  was  recalled  to  his  native 
state,  where  he  spent  the  remaining  years  of  his  life 
in  putting  finishing  touches  to  his  edition  of  the  an- 
cient writings,  in  digesting  the  odes  and  reforming 
the  music  with  which  they  were  accompanied,  and  in 
composing  his  only  surviving  original  work,  the 
Oh'un  Oh'iu,  or  Spring  and  Autumn  Annals. 

But  the  pitcher  was  soon  to  break  at  the  fountain. 
Confucius  had  ceased  to  dream  of  his  great  hero, 
Duke  Chou,  and  one  spring  morning,  as  he  walked 
before  his  door,  he  was  heard  crooning  over  another 
presage  of  his  end. 


The  great  mountain  must  crumble  ; 

The  strong  beam  must  break  ; 

And  the  wise  man  withers  away  like  a  plant.' 


The  last  recorded  speech  and  dream  of  the  Sage  had 
to  do  with  the  funeral  ceremonies  of  ancient  dynas- 
ties, after  which  he  took  to  his  bed,  where  he  died  a 
few  days  later,  in  479  or  478  B.C.  His  weeping  disci- 
ples buried  xiim  beneath  the  tumulus  which  to-day 
survives  as  the  Mecca  of  Confucianism,  surrounded 
by  sombre  cypresses,  regal  halls  and  courts,  eulogistic 
monuments  of  marble,  and  the  graves  of  more  than 
seventy  generations  of  his  posterity.  His  own  gener- 
ation knew  not  Joseph,  but  later  centuries  have  not 
ceased  to  do  him  highest  reverence. 

2.  Only  a  word  can  be  said  of  Confucius's  character. 
His  family  life,  though  somewhat  more  fortunate  than 
that  of  Socrates,  was  not  very  commendable,  and  he 
apparently  rejoiced  when  his  wife  died.  His  son  also 
was  so  sternly  and  scornfully  dealt  with  by  the  father 
that  one  can  believe  that  he  had  failed  in  the  matter  of 


RELIGIONS  OF  THE  CHINESE  63 

paternal  duty.  While  the  charge  of  untruthfulness 
and  insincerity  can  be  supported,  he  usually  had  a 
high  regard  for  truth  and  righteousness. 

His  attitude  toward  the  past,  as  described  by  him- 
self, is  found  in  the  words,  ''  A  transmitter  and  not 
a  maker,  believing  in  and  loving  the  ancients.'*  This 
meant  the  restoration  of  ancient  life  and  ceremonial 
in  person,  family,  and  state,  and  to  accomplish  this 
object  he  gave  himself  with  a  perseverance,  courage, 
and  lack  of  compromise  that  are  phenomenal.  He 
felt  that  Heaven  had  committed  to  him  the  right 
way,  and  that  he  was  immortal  till  his  work  was 
done.  The  student  desirous  of  getting  a  comprehen- 
sive view  of  the  Sage's  life  and  character  should  read 
Book  VII.  of  the  Analects,  where  he  is  seen  in  the 
varied  relations  of  life. 

His  disciples  tell  us  that  *'  there  were  four  things 
from  which  he  was  free,  foregone  conclusions,  arbi- 
trary determinations,  obstinacy,  and  egoism  ;  that 
there  were  four  subjects  which  he  avoided  in  talking 
with  them,  extraordinary  things,  feats  of  strength, 
rebellious  disorder,  and  spirits  ;  that  there  were  fonr 
things  which  he  taught  them,  letters,  ethics,  leal- 
heartedness,  and  truthfulness  ;  that  there  were  three 
things  of  which  he  seldom  spoke,  profitableness,  the 
appointments  [of  Heaven],  and  perfect  virtue ;  and 
that  there  were  three  things  in  regard  to  which  he 
thought  the  greatest  caution  should  be  exercised, 
fasting  [as  preliminary  to  sacrifice],  war,  and  [the 
treatment  of]  disease.'' 

3.  Confucian  literature  is  popularly  said  to  consist 
of  Thirte'en  Canons,  the  '^  Four  Books"  and  "  Five 
Classics  "  being  most  important.  The  most  widely 
known  of  these  are  the  Ssu  Shu — Four  Books.  The 
Ta  Hsiieh,  or  Great  Learning,  and  the  Chung  Yung, 
or  Doctrine  of  the  Mean,  were  taken  from  the  Li  Chi 
by  Chu  Hsi  to  form  two  of  the  Shu.  The  first  chap- 
ter of  the  former  contains  Conf ucius's  words  as  handed 
down  by  Tseng,  and  the  remainder  is  made  up  of 
quotations  selected  by  him  and  Chu  Hsi.     The  Chung 


DA  WNT  ON  THE  HILLS  OF  T*ANG 


Ynng,  the  most  philosophic  of  the  Four  Books,  was 
composed  by  Confucius's  grandson,  and  its  object  is 
to  illustrate  the  nature  of  virtue  and  the  character  of 
the  princely  man.  The  Lun  Yii,  or  Analects,  is  a 
collection  of  reminiscences  of  the  Master,  recalled  by 
various  disciples,  thus  resembling  Lu therms  ^'  Tisch- 
reden,'^  or  BoswelFs  "  Life  of  Johnson.""  The  fourth 
section  of  the  Four  Books,  and  more  than  half  of  the 
whole  collection,  is  made  up  of  the  writings  of  Meng- 
tzu,  or  Mencius,  who  was  a  keener  philosopher  than 
his  master,  though  he  lived  more  than  a  century  later, 
from  371  to  288  B.C.  After  his  death  his  disciples 
collected  his  conversations  and  exhortations  and  pub- 
lished them  in  this  form. 

The  Wu  Ching — Five  Classics — are  as  follows  : 
Yi  Ching,  Book  of  Changes,  ranking  first  or  third  in 
antiquity  among  the  Classics,  and  sometimes  ascribed 
even  to  the  legendary  Fu  Hsi.  Though  commonly 
regarded  as  a  cosmological  and  ethical  treatise,  some 
modern  Orientalists  claim  that  it  is  in  its  fundamental 
form  an  Accadian  syllabary.  The  Shu  Ching,  Booh 
of  History,  may  have  been  originally  compiled  by 
Confucius  from  the  historical  remains  of  dynasties 
previous  to  his  time,  and  contains  much  of  a  didactic 
nature.  It  is  probably  first  in  age  of  all  the  Classics, 
and  contains  the  "  seeds  of  all  things  that  are  valu- 
able in  the  eyes  of  the  Chinese.''^  The  Shih  Ching, 
Book  of  Odes,  contains  three  hundred  and  eleven 
ballads,  used  by  the  people  of  China^s  ancient  petty 
states,  which  were  selected  and  arranged  by  Confucius, 
who  attached  great  value  to  them  as  a  means  of  mould- 
ing the  national  character.  The  Eituals  are  three  in 
number,  only  one  of  which,  the  Li  Chi,  Record  of 
Rites,  a  sort  of  digest  of  other  collections,  is  officially 
recognized  as  canonical.  M.  Callery  says  of  it : 
"  Ceremony  epitomizes  the  entire  Chinese  mind ; 
and,  in  my  opinion,  the  Li  Chi  is  per  se  the  most 
exact  and  complete  monograph  that  China  has  been 
able  to  give  of  itself  to  other  nations."  The  Ch'un 
Ch*iu,  Spring  a^id  Autumn  [Annals'\,  was  prepared 


RELIGIONS  OF  THE  CHINESE 


by  Confucius,  aided  by  bis  disciples,  as  a  supplement 
to  the  Shu  Ching,  in  order  to  continue  the  history  of 
his  own  state  down  to  the  year  480  or  484  B.C.  The 
above  five  works,  though  less  known  than  the  more 
commonly  studied  Four  Books,  are  regarded  as  more 
valuable  to  the  state. 

4.  The  teachings  of  Confucius — more  strictly,  the 
teachings  of  ancient  history,  Mencius  and  Chu  Hsi 
— are  ethical  rather  than  religious,  and  look  to  the 
state  rather  than  to  the  individual,  though  self -cult- 
ure is  fundamental  in  his  system.  This  latter  point 
is  evidenced  by  Confucius's  '*  House  that  Jack 
Built,"  found  in  the  Great  Learning  :  ^^  The  ancients, 
wishing  to  illustrate  illustrious  virtue  throughout  the 
Empire,  first  ordered  well  their  own  states.  Wishing 
to  order  well  their  states,  they  first  regulated  their 
families.  Wishing  to  regulate  their  families,  they 
first  cultivated  their  persons.  Wishing  to  cultivate 
their  persons,  they  first  rectified  their  hearts.  Wish- 
ing to  rectify  their  hearts,  they  first  sought  to  be 
sincere  in  their  thoughts.  Wishing  to  be  sincere  in 
their  thoughts,  they  first  extended  to  the  utmost 
their  knowledge.  Such  extension  of  knowledge  lay 
in  the  investigation  of  things.''^ 

Hhefive  relations  underlying  the  Confucian  state 
— existing  between  prince  and  minister,  father  and 
son,  husband  and  wife,  elder  and  younger  brothers, 
and  between  friends — are  thus  described  in  a  primer 
that  has  been  committed  to  memory  by  more  boys 
than  any  other  in  existence  :  '*  Affection  between 
father  and  son  ;  concord  between  husband  and  wife  ; 
kindness  on  the  part  of  the  elder  brother,  and  defer- 
ence on  the  part  of  the  younger  ;  order  between 
seniors  and  juniors  ;  sincerity  between  friends  and 
associates  ;  respect  on  the  part  of  the  ruler,  and  loy- 
alty on  that  of  the  minister : — these  are  the  ten  right- 
eous courses  equally  binding  on  all  men."  *'  The  five 
regular  constituents  of  our  moral  nature,"  known  as 
the  wu  ch^a7ig,  are  benevolence,  righteousness,  pro- 
priety, knowledge,  and  truth,  or  faithfulness,  while 


66  DAIVN-  ON-  THE  HILLS  OF  T'ANG 

the  five  hlessings,  or  happiness,  as  named  in  the 
Shu  Ching,  are  long  life,  wealth,  tranquillity,  desire 
for  virtue,  and  a  natural  death.  A  study  of  these  re- 
lations, virtues,  and  blessings,  together  with  that  of 
the  chiln-tzu  jen,  or  princely  man,  and  of  the  individ- 
ual as  related  to  the  state,  will  acquaint  one  with  the 
prevalent  Confucian  ideas. 

While  Confucianism  is  atheistic  in  tendency y  and 
often  in  fact,  it  cannot  be  strictly  so  called.  Heaven 
is  spoken  of  as  conferring  the  nature  of  man.  Filial 
piety,  so  characteristic  of  the  system,  demands  the 
worship  of  spirits  of  the  dead.  Imperial  worship  is 
actually  paid  to  Heaven  and  the  Supreme  Euler ; 
and  lest  the  worship  of  Heaven  and  earth  should  be 
considered  a  worship  of  natural  forces  merely,  Confu- 
cius said,  '^  The  ceremonies  of  the  sacrifices  to  Heaven 
and  earth  are  those  by  which  we  serve  the  Supreme 
Euler.''  Yet  it  must  be  confessed  that  while  the 
materialism  of  Chu  Fu-tzu  dominates  Chinese  scholar- 
ship, and  the  literati  can  quote  Confucius's  reticence 
concerning  spirits  and  the  future  life,  it  is  hopeless  to 
think  of  deriving  much  leverage  from  Confucianism 
as  the  missionary  tries  to  introduce  the  idea  of  God. 
The  word  Reciprocity  and  the  Confucian  form  of  the 
Golden  Rule,  ''  Self  what  not  desire,  do  not  do  to 
men,"  may  be  helps  to  teaching  Christian  ethics,  but 
the  spirit  and  content  of  Christianity  must  be  im- 
J)orted  de  novo. 

5.  Modern  Confucian  doctrine  is  summed  up  in  the 
"Sacred  Edict,"  issued  three  centuries  ago  by  the 
celebrated  Emperor  K^ang  Hsi,  and  wrongly  supposed 
to  be  read  and  explained  by  officials  twice  each  month 
to  an  eagerly  listening  populace.  The  sixteen  precepts 
inculcate  filial  piety  and  brotherly  submission,  gen- 
erosity to  kindred,  cultivation  of  peace  toward  neigh- 
bors, importance  of  husbandry,  economy,  education, 
banishment  of  strange  doctrines,  explanation  of  the 
laws,  propriety  and  courtesy,  diligence  in  labor,  in- 
struction of  sons  and  younger  brothers  in  right  doing, 
protection  against  false  accusation,  warning  against 


"     RELIGIONS  OF  THE  CHINESE  67 

aiding  deserters,  prompt  payment  of  taxes,  combina- 
tion against  thieves  and  robbers,  and  the  removal  of 
resentment  and  angry  feelings. 

6.  Tlie  ivorsliip  of  ^^  The  Perfect  Sage,  the  Ancient 
Teacher  Confucius,^'  is  performed  in  its  simplest  form 
by  every  school-boy  before  his  tablet,  and  by  officials 
in  1,500  provincial  temples,  where  twice  each  year 
38,306  animals  are  sacrificed  and  27,600  pieces  of  silk 
are  offered  at  his  shrine.  While  the  most  elaborate 
temple  is  found  at  his  Shan-tung  home,  his  worship 
reaches  its  acme  in  the  Confucian  Temple  at  Peking, 
where  the  Emperor  goes  in  state  semi-annually  to 
worship,  sacrifice,  and  pray  to  the  * '  Teacher,  in  virtue 
equal  to  Heaven  and  earth,  whose  doctrines  embrace 
the  past  times  and  the  present,"'  as  well  as  to  Mencius 
and  three  other  hardly  less  famous  disciples  of  the 
Sage,  Yen,  Tseng,  and  Tzu  Ssu. 

Buddhism,  or  Sect  of  Fo. — The  last  to  enter  of 
the  three  great  sects.  Buddhism  satisfied,  as  the  other 
two  did  not,  longings  of  the  soul  as  to  the  future,  and 
consequently  largely  modified  Taoism  and  to  some 
extent  influenced  Confucianism. 

1.  This  most  popular  of  Chinese  religions  may 
have  been  introduced  into  China  about  250  B.C.  ; 
though,  as  opinions  without  sufficient  evidence  are 
valueless,  this  traditional  entrance  may  be  rejected 
and  the  usual  date  in  the  seventh  decade  of  the  first 
Christian  century,  about  the  time  of  St.  PauFs  death, 
be  accepted.  Not  that  Buddhism  was  then  heard  of 
for  the  first  time — for  at  the  date  of  our  Saviour's  ad- 
vent China  certainly  had  become  acquainted  with  the 
Buddhist  canons  and  images — but  not  till  then  did 
the  superstitious  Emperor  Ming  dream  that  a  golden 
man  had  flown  into  the  audience  hall.  A  courtier 
suggesting  that  it  might  point  to  Buddha,  the  Em- 
peror sent  an  under-secretary  to  India  to  try  and  get 
it.  Forty-two  chapters  of  the  Buddhist  canon  and 
a  standing  image  of  Buddha  were  obtained,  a  monas- 
tery was  prepared  near  the  capital,  and  translation 
of  the  canon  and  preaching  began.     Thereafter  for 


68  DAWN  ON-  THE  HILLS  OF  T'ANG 

seven  centuries  zealous  Buddhist  missionaries  of  India 
came  and  went  in  a  ceaseless  stream,  *'  joining  the 
caravans  entering  the  northwestern  marts  and  ships 
trading  at  southern  ports/^ 

2.  The  spread  of  Buddhism  was  rapid  at  times,  as 
during  the  Sui  dynasty  when  it  reached  its  zenith  ; 
and  at  others  persecution  almost  wiped  out  the  faith, 
as  when,  in  a.d.  845,  4,600  monasteries  and  40,000 
smaller  religious  houses  were  destroyed,  their  copper 
bells  and  images  made  into  cash,  and  260,000  monks 
and  nuns  forced  to  return  to  secular  life.  To-day, 
in  spite  of  K'ang  Hsi's  seventh  edict,  *'  Discounten- 
ance and  banish  strange  doctrines,  in  order  to  exalt 
the  correct  doctrine  " — aimed  especially  at  Buddhism 
as  opposed  to  Confucianism — Buddhist  temples  are 
on  all  ^'  the  hills  and  under  every  green  tree,"  and 
Buddhist  monks  and  nuns  greatly  outnumber  those 
of  the  Taoists. 

3.  Popular  Buddhistic  doctrines  in  China  are  of 
the  northern  type,  as  opposed  to  the  cold  and  cheer- 
less faith  of  Ceylon,  Burma,  and  Siam.  While  there 
are  two  great  divisions  and  thirteen  Buddhist  sects  in 
the  Empire,  they  differ  little  in  popular  estimation  ; 
and  as  they  have  borrowed  from  Confucianism  '*its 
reverence  for  ancestors  and  for  state,  and  from  Taoism 
its  demigods  and  its  geomantic  superstitions,"  men  of 
every  creed  rejoice  in  its  banyan-like  shade. 

Their  helief  concerning  Buddha  is  almost  identical 
with  that  found  in  Asvaghosha^s  *'  Life  of  Buddha, '^ 
and  thus  resembles  what  is  found  in  Arnold's  "  Light 
of  Asia." 

Theoretically  the  great  laios  of  Buddha  are  eight  : 
"  Right  views,"  including  the  faculty  for  discerning 
the  truth;  ''equal  and  unvarying  wisdom, '^  ?'.e.,  ab- 
sence of  evil  or  pernicious  thoughts  ;  ''  right  speech," 
excluding  idle  or  pernicious  language  ;  *'  correct  con- 
duct," or  purity  ;  ''  right  life,"  or  that  of  a  religious 
mendicant ;  ''  right  endeavor,"  or  the  use  of  proper 
expedients  ;  ''  right  recollection,"  or  repeating  from 
a  true  memory  Buddha's  law  and  the  formulas  of  wor- 


RELIGIONS  OF  THE  CHINESE  69 

ship ;  and  "  right  meditation/'  or  the  exercise  of  a 
mental  abstraction  that  leaves  the  mind  vacant  for 
the  entrance  of  truth.  ''These  are  the  eight  roads, 
even  and  level,  by  which  to  avoid  the  sorrow  of  re- 
peated birth  and  death. '*  Practically,  however,  the 
Chinese  Buddhist  cares  more  for  a  work  called  *'  The 
Eules  of  Merit  and  Transgression  '^  than  for  such  ab- 
stract teachings.  Thus  he  is  careful  to  do  good  deeds, 
the  most  meritorious  of  which  are  to  marry,  when 
rich,  a  deformed  girl  to  whom  betrothed  when  poor, 
to  publish  a  part  of  the  Classics,  and  to  forgive  a 
debt,  each  netting  him  one  hundred  credits  ;  to  de- 
stroy the  stereotype  plates  of  immoral  books,  three 
hundred  credits,  and  to  seek  to  be  pure  through  life, 
credit  1,000.  Similarly  the  pious  Buddhist  will  avoid 
loving  a  wife  more  than  father  and  mother,  being 
guilty  of  usury,  cooking  beef  or  dog-meat,  digging  up 
a  coffin,  and  drowning  an  infant,  all  of  which  inflict 
one  hundred  demerits,  and  will  especially  avoid  pub- 
lishing an  obscene  book,  the  penalty  for  which  is 
measureless. 

The  doctrine  of  metempsychosis,  which  underlies 
all  Buddhistic  teaching,  and  which  was  incorporated 
from  Buddhism  into  the  later  Taoism,  makes  life  de- 
sirable or  undesirable,  according  to  one's  present  lot 
and  one's  balance  of  merit  or  demerit.  The  wheel 
of  transmigration  ceaselessly  turning  in  Hades  with 
its  six  ranks  or  spokes — insects,  fish,  birds,  animals, 
poor  men,  and  mandarins — renders  the  death-bed  a 
place  of  curious  and  awful  dread.  Yet  this  is  the 
firm  belief  of  almost  every  man,  woman,  and  child  in 
China — even  of  the  learned  Confucianist,  who,  with 
his  exaltation  of  filial  piety,  sometimes  yields  before 
Buddha's  reason  for  not  eating  flesh,  viz.,  that  in  so 
doing  one  might  very  likely  eat  an  ancestor,  reborn 
in  animal  form. 

The  Buddhist  heaven  was  a  new  idea  to  the  Chi- 
nese. They  care  little,  however,  for  the  heavens  de- 
scribed in  Sanskrit  phrases — the  lower  ones  admitting 
of  sensuous  pleasures,  and  the  superior  heavens  where 


70  DAWN  ON  THE  HILLS   OF  T'ANG 

happiness  consists  in  thought  or  pure  being  ;  still  less 
do  they  care  for  the  highest  heavens,  which  *'  admit  of 
no  thought,  nor  do  they  exclude  it ;  the  condition 
here  is  purely  transcendental/^  What  millions  long 
for,  and  only  thousands  can  reasonably  hope  to  attain, 
is  the  Western  Paradise.  "  This  happy  region  is  ex- 
quisitely adorned  with  gold  and  silver  and  precious 
gems.  There  are  pure  waters  with  golden  sands,  sur- 
rounded by  pleasant  walks,  and  covered  with  large 
lotus  flowers.  .  .  .  Again,  heavenly  music  is 
ever  heard  in  this  abode  ;  flowers  rain  down  each  day 
three  times.  .  .  .  Again,  there  are  in  this  para- 
dise birds  of  every  kind,  .  .  .  which  during  the 
six  watches  raise  their  notes  in  concert  to  sing  the 
praises  of  religion.  .  .  .  Again,  the  name  of  hell 
is  there  an  unknown  word  ;  there  is  no  birth  in  *  an 
evil  way,'  no  fear  of  such  births.  .  .  .  And  liv- 
ing there  is  a  multitude  of  purified  and  venerable 
persons,  difficult  to  count,  innumerable,  incalculable. 
And  therefore  all  beings  ought  to  make  fervent  prayer 
for  that  country/' 

Over  against  this  ineffable  glory  must  be  put  the 
Buddhist  hells,  or  earth-prisons,  which,  however,  are 
not  often  distinguished  one  from  another  in  the  pop- 
ular mind.  The  ordinary  conception  is  gained  from 
the  hell  found  in  some  Buddhist  temples,  where, 
set  forth  with  all  the  plastic  or  pictorial  arts,  are 
seen  the  horrors  of  the  damned,  most  of  whom  are 
women.  The  ten  kings  of  hell,  infernal  lictors,  black, 
white,  and  blue  devils,  the  mortar,  mill,  chopping- 
knife,  caldron  of  boiling  oil,  cylinder,  village  of  wild 
dogs,  lake  of  blood,  bridge  of  snakes,  hill  of  knives 
— all  with  their  suffering  victims — demons  sawing 
women  asunder  or  pulling  out  their  tongues,  men 
wandering  aimlessly  up  rugged  heights  with  decapi- 
tated head  in  hand,  are  all  so  grewsomely  depicted  or 
sculptured  in  that  chamber  of  horrors,  that  even  for- 
eigners cannot  sleep  after  visiting  one  because  of 
troubled  dreams. 

And  what  is  the  Buddhisf$  salvation  f  The  Nirvana 


RELIGIONS  OF  THE  CHINESE  71 

of  the  books,  gained  in  Buddha's  way  ;  but  straight 
is  that  gate,  and  only  a  pitiful  few  of  China's  millions 
are  seen  agonizing  to  enter  in  thereat.  As  for  the 
rest,  if  they  live  a  compassionate,  benevolent  life,  and 
have  a  large  credit  on  their  moral  ledger,  a  better 
transmigration  may  be  expected — a  woman  be  born  a 
man,  if  she  has  been  surpassingly  saintly,  and  a  poor 
man  be  reborn  as  a  scholar  with  a  sure  chance  of 
growing  rich  from  the  spoils  of  office.  There  are 
also  saviours  among  the  gods  who  can  aid  mortals, 
thanks  to  the  attempt  of  Northern  Buddhism  to  meet 
an  inborn  need  of  every  human  soul. 

4.  The  Buddhist  priesthood  is  too  ignorant  and 
inactive  to  merit  special  mention.  Monks  and  nuns 
are  scarcely  distinguishable,  as  both  sexes  have  un- 
bound feet,  loose  socks  and  trousers,  yellow  robes, 
made  flowing  to  allow  for  spiritual  influences,  and 
clean-shaven  pates.  Begging  alms  in  the  street, 
raising  funds  for  temple  repairs  by  various  nerve- 
moving  austerities,  and  their  numerous  and  noisy 
presence  at  the  prolonged  wake  preceding  funerals, 
constitute  their  main  extra-temple  functions. 

5.  Temples  and  pagodas  are  the  architectural  con- 
tributions of  Buddhism  to  the  community,  though 
Confucianism  and  Taoism  claim  the  latter  as  super- 
lative instruments  for  bringing  to  earth  the  celestial 
influences  so  essential  to  geomancy.  Except  in  cities, 
temples  are  always  beautifully  situated,  usually  in 
some  quiet  or  picturesque  spot.  Their  generous 
courts  and  capacious  buildings  are  the  resort  of  visi- 
tors, as  well  as  the  dwelling-place  of  many  gods  and 
of  their  human  attendants. 

6.  The  worship  at  these  temples  is  largely  liturgical 
and  hence  incomprehensible,  as  the  liturgy  is  in 
Sanskrit,  which  is  only  imperfectly  represented  by 
Chinese  sounds.  The  portly  abbot  supported  by  his 
retinue  of  monks,  candles  and  burning  incense,  the 
monotonous  droning  of  liturgies,  the  repetition  of 
merit-bringing  phrases  and  prayers  accompanied  by 
the  rattle  of  rosaries,  the  measured  beating  of  wooden 


yi  DAWN  ON  THE  HILLS   OF  T'ANG 

. ■  -  -^ 

fish-heads,  and  prostrations  in  an  atmosphere  heary 
with  pent-up  smoke,  are  the  prevailing  impressions 
brought  away  by  the  visitor. 

7.  The  gods  in  whose  honor  this  worship  is  per- 
formed are  too  numerous  to  name,  since  Chinese 
Buddhism  has  adopted  a  most  catholic  pantheon  of 
deities.  Prominent  among  them  are  the  Triad  of 
Past,  Present,  and  Future  Buddhas, — known  as  the 
Three  Precious  Ones, — Amita  and  Kuan  Yin.  The 
latter,  formerly  considered  a  god,  has  for  centuries 
been  a  goddess,  and  is  the  most  common  object  of 
veneration  among  Chinese  Buddhists.  Her  fuller 
name  means  "  the  Sovereign  who  regards  the  prayers 
of  the  world,''  and  she  is  also  known  as  the  ^'  most 
merciful,  most  compassionate.''  She  is  a  Buddhist 
Saviour  who  can  rescue  from  earthly  ills  and  demoni- 
acal hosts  every  sort  and  condition  of  men,  from  the 
lunatic,  whose  prayer  makes  him  sane,  to  the  wisest 
mandarin  of  the  Empire.  '^  Great  Mercy,  Great 
Pity,  save  from  misery,  save  from  evil — broad,  great, 
efficacious,  responsive  Kuan  Yin  Buddha,"  is  a  cry 
that  penetrates  the  throne  room  on  the  Isle  of  P^u 
T*o  and  moves  the  heart  of  the  Queen  of  Heaven. 
*'  The  Giving  Sons  Kuan  Yin,"  resembling  most 
strikingly  the  image  of  the  '^  Madonna  and  Child," 
and  two  other  metamorphoses  of  her  are  all  greatly 
reverenced. 

Associated  with  Kuan  Yin  in  worship  is  Amitabha, 
Amita,  or  O-mi-t^o,  as  he  is  called  in  Chinese.  He 
is  the  Buddha  of  ''  Boundless  Light,"  so  called  be- 
cause ^'  his  brightness  is  boundless,  and  he  can  illu- 
mine all  kingdoms.  His  life,  boundless  and  shoreless, 
extends  through  many  kalpas."  His  chief  value  in 
Chinese  eyes  lies  in  the  fact  of  his  being  the  ^^  guid- 
ing Buddha,"  who  directs  his  worshippers  to  the 
greatly  desired  Western  Paradise.  Pronounce  his 
magic  name  as  many  times  as  possible  in  one  breath, 
and  some  25,000  times  a  day,  concentrate  the  thought 
on  Amita  like  a  thread  running  through  beads,  call 
on  his  name  for  seven  days  with  fixed  heart,  and  at 


RELIGIONS  OF  THE  CHINESE  73 

death  Amita  with  his  holy  throng  will  appear  before 
yon  ;  yonr  heart  will  not  be  tnrned  npside  down,  but, 
as  candidate  for  the  lily-birth,  you  will  be  born  in  the 
Pure  Land. 

Chinese  Geomancy. — This  is  known  as  feng- 
shui — literally  wind  and  water — and  is  everywhere  a 
powerful  factor  in  Chinese  life.  While  it  may  owe 
most  to  the  Taoists  for  its  development,  it  is  the 
product  of  superstition-mongers  of  all  the  sects. 
Though  founded  on  one  of  the  most  ancient  Classics, 
the  Yi  Ching,  it  became  systematized  only  in  the 
twelfth  century  ;  yet  in  seven  hundred  years  it  has 
become  '^  one  of  the  most  gigantic  systems  of  delusion 
that  ever  gained  prevalence  among  men.'' 

1.  The  original  objects  of  care  giving  rise  to  the 
systems  were  the  spirits  of  departed  ancestors.  Made 
powerful  by  the  act  of  death,  their  mediatorship  was 
greatly  sought  by  the  living.  Naturally  their  sepul- 
chre-home was  of  great  importance,  and  only  "  wind 
and  water  doctors  "  could  properly  locate  this. 

Later,  however,  the  sites  of  houses,  shops,  pagodas, 
and  cities  came  to  be  determined  by  these  doctors, 
and  their  science  broadened  out  until  it  included 
'' cosmogony,  natural  philosophy,  spiritualism,  and 
biology,  so  far  as  they  have  these  sciences.'' 

2.  Spirits  of  the  dead  are  but  media  through 
whom  survivors  can  influence  ^Ae  real  power y  which  is 
nature.  Nature  is  regarded  as  a  living  organism, 
over  which  hover  invisible  hosts  of  malignant  beings 
that  need  to  be  propitiated.  ^'  If  a  tomb  is  placed  so 
that  the  spirit  dwelling  therein  is  comfortable,  the 
inference  is  that  the  deceased  will  grant  those  who 
supply  its  wants  all  that  the  spirit  world  can  grant. 
A  tomb  located  where  no  star  on  high  or  dragon  be- 
low, no  breath  of  nature  or  malign  configuration  of 
hills,  can  disturb  the  peace  of  the  dead,  must  there- 
fore be  lucky,  and  worth  great  effort  to  secure." 

3.  "  ThQ  principles  of  geomancy  depend  much  on  two 
supposed  currents  running  through  the  earth,  known 
as  the  dragon  and  the  tiger  3  a  propitious  site  has 


74  DAWN  ON  THE  HILLS   OF  T'ANG 

these  on  its  left  and  right.  A  skilful  observer  can 
detect  and  describe  them,  with  the  help  of  the  com- 
pass, direction  of  the  water-courses,  shapes  of  the 
male  and  female  ground  and  their  proportions,  color 
of  the  soil,  and  the  permutation  of  the  elements." 

4.  Evidences  of  the  poiuer  of  this  system  are  seen 
almost  everywhere.  Graves  with  their  armchair  con- 
figuration in  the  south,  crooked  streets,  blank  walls 
and  screens  to  prevent  spirits  from  gaining  impetus 
through  rectilinear  motion,  pagodas  and  temples 
erected  to  improve  f eng-shui,  the  location  of  Peking 
and  of  the  mausolea  of  grandees  and  emperors,  theo- 
ries about  the  height  of  new  buildings  near  older  ones, 
hostility  to  two-storied  houses  of  foreigners  and  spires 
of  Christian  churches,  and  the  prevalent  dread  of 
telegraphs,  railroads,  and  mines,  so  fearfully  inimical 
to  good  luck — these  are  a  few  samples  of  many.  In 
a  word,  the  universal  fear  of  bad  feng-shui  is  ex- 
pressed in  their  proverb,  '^  A  real  man  would  rather 
die  than  to  have  his  eyebrows  inverted,"  i.e.,  lose  his 
luck.  And  the  key  to  this  most  enthralling  system 
of  superstition  is  held  in  the  itching  palm  of  the 
crafty  geomancer,  usually  of  Buddhistic  or  Taoist 
faith. 


PREPARATION-  AND  BEGINNINGS 

Before  considering  the  work  of  modern  missions 
in  the  Empire,  it  will  be  well  to  note  those  movements 
that  have  been  in  a  sense  a  preparation  for  the  com- 
ing of  the  present-day  missionary. 

Ancient  Moral  and  Religious  Conditions. — 
Those  already  described  have  had  their  value  in  the 
way  of  indicating  China's  need.  Confucianism  had 
given  to  her  a  code  of  ethics  second  only  to  the  Chris- 
tian system  in  the  opinion  of  many.  There  were  also 
embedded  in  the  ancient  records,  like  a  fly  in  amber, 
intimations  of  a  Supreme  Being  who  ruled  in  the 
affairs  of  men.  When  Buddhism  in  our  first  century 
had  crystallized  the  cloudlike  metaphysics  and  alche- 
mistic  vaporings  of  Taoism  into  a  religion,  a  change 
in  emphasis  as  to  the  ground  of  virtue  appeared. 
Eight  for  right's  sake  and  filial  piety  were  still  be- 
lieved in,  but  the  Taoist  said,  *'  There  are  in  heaven 
and  on  earth  spirits  whose  duty  it  is  to  search  out  the 
faults  of  men,  and  who,  according  to  the  lightness  or 
gravity  of  their  offences,  reduce  the  length  of  their 
lives  by  periods  of  a  hundred  days.''  Retribution  ami 
ever-present  spirits  thus  filled  the  thought  of  the 
duty-doer.  Buddhism  brought  to  China  the  empha- 
sis of  suffering  and  its  alleviation,  its  doctrine  of 
Karma  which  could  be  accumulated  merit,  and  the 
sunset  glory  of  its  Western  Paradise.  The  loveliness 
of  the  unselfish  life,  the  hideous  lineaments  of  lust 
and  passion,  arch-enemies  of  the  human  race,  and 
the  reality  of  the  invisible  spiritual  world,  which 
might  be  one's  own  possession,  were  also  India's  gift 
to  China. 

75 


76  DAtVN  ON  THE  HILLS  OF  T'ANG 

The  Secret  Sects. — 1.  But  another  source  has 
been  experimentally  proven  more  truly  preparatory  to 
the  reception  of  the  gospel  message  than  the  best  ele- 
ments in  the  established  faiths.  This  is  found  in  the 
beliefs  held  by  many  of  the  proscribed  and  hence  secret 
sects.  These  tenets  have  proven  helpful,  not  so  much 
because  they  are  wholly  new — since  most  of  their  doc- 
trines are  a  composite  of  views  already  current  in  the 
Empire — but  because  the  holders  of  these  doctrines 
are  such  from  conviction  and  so  are  prepared  to  endure 
much  hardship  in  consequence,  while  believers  in  or- 
thodox views  are  usually  mere  formalists  of  jellyfish 
character.  Their  number  and  distribution — it  is  esti- 
mated that  there  are  from  20,000  to  200,000  sect  mem- 
bers in  each  province — are  also  a  source  of  strength  to 
the  Christian  movement  in  that  everywhere  are  found 
men  who  have  the  courage  of  their  convictions,  though 
they  are  not  the  views  of  their  neighbors,  a7i  object 
lesson  of  the  greatest  value  to  the  would-be  Christian. 

2.  As  to  the  doctrines  taught  by  these  sects,  some 
societies  exist  for  the  propagation  of  political  theories, 
often  of  a  revolutionary  character ;  others  propitiate 
evil  powers,  and  others  still  hold  the  symbols  of  re- 
production in  reverence,  as  in  India.  Most  of  them, 
happily,  are  mainly  moral  and  religious.  Thus  the 
Tsai-li  Society  is  one  of  the  most  extensive  tem^  or- 
ance  organizations  in  the  world,  its  members  pled  .ug 
themselves  to  abstain  from  gambling,  tobacco,  wine, 
and  opium,  and  carrying  on  a  crusade  against  these 
evils  by  means  of  most  realistic  representations, 
through  clay  figures  clothed  in  rags,  of  the  evils  of 
intemperance.  Several  sects  advocate  vegetarianism 
**  as  a  means  of  rectifying  the  heart,  accumulating 
merit,  avoiding  calamities  in  this  life  and  retributive 
pains  in  the  next.^'  Another  sect  ^' tries  to  persuade 
men  to  be  chaste,  to  eliminate  all  passion,  and  by 
meditation  and  study  to  attain  a  state  of  perfect 
repose  and  self-control,  so  that  every  impulse  may 
be  followed  without  the  least  risk  of  falling  into  sin." 
The  duty  of  maintaining  a  patient  spirit  under  injury 


PREPARATION  AND  BEGINNINGS  TJ 

«—■ — ^^-^^_—^^_^__^__________^_^^ 

and  of  meeting  reviling  with  silence  is  the  chief  teach- 
ing of  another  society.  Many  a  sect  member  is  seen 
who  is  really  seeking  truth  and  trying  to  relieve  needy 
and  suffering  neighbors.  The  Chin-tan  Chiao,  or 
Pill  of  Immortality  Sect,  which  in  1891  lost  15,000 
members  through  the  false  charge  of  being  rebels, 
uses  terms  and  prayers  that  are  essentially  Christian, 
and  many  of  its  membership  declare  after  joining  the 
Christian  Church  that  Chin-tan  doctrines  closely  re- 
semble those  of  Christianity. 

3.  Mr.  James,  a  Shan-tung  missionary,  who  had 
made  a  special  study  of  the  secret  sects,  thus  testified 
to  the  character  of  sect  converts  :  ^'  Some  of  the  best 
and  most  consistent  Christians  I  know  were  once  the 
devoted  followers  of  these  societies.  And  in  spite  of 
all  the  suspicion  cast  on  them  by  the  officials,  and  the 
fact  that  numbers  of  their  leaders  and  adherents  hare 
been  punished  for  seditious  practices,  it  is  certain  that 
a  large  number,  perhaps  a  majority  of  the  most 
thoughtful,  decent,  and  earnest  seekers  after  God  are 
contained  in  these  sects.  With  such  people  it  is  no 
political  matter,  but  a  strenuous  endeavor  to  do  the 
utmost  in  their  power  to  eradicate  sinful  habits,  to 
do  good,  obtain  rest  for  their  souls,  and  immortal  life.'' 

The  Jews  in  China. — Turning  from  these  dim 
gropings  after  God,  one  would  expect  to  find  in 
Judaism  and  Mohammedanism,  with  their  doctrine 
of  the  true  God,  a  more  helpful  element  in  preparing 
the  Chinese  mind  for  Christian  teachings.  It  is  a 
question,  however,  whether  this  is  so.  The  Jewish 
leaven  has  been  too  small  to  affect  the  populous  lump, 
while  Mohammedans  bring  reproach  by  their  lax 
morality  on  the  God  whom  they  worship. 

1.  Formerly  the  Jeius  called  their  faith  the  Religion 
of  India,  in  allusion.  Dr.  Martin  thinks,  to  the  prin- 
cipal land  of  their  sojourn  on  their  way  to  China ; 
later  they  were  known  by  their  heathen  neighbors  as 
the  T^iao-chin  Chiao,  or  Sinew  Picking  Sect,  since 
they  pick  out  the  sinews  from  the  fiesh  before  eating 
(Gen.  xxxii.  32). 


yS  DAWN  ON-  THE  HILLS    OF  T'ANG 

On  a  stone  in  K'^ai-f  eng  Fu,  the  capital  of  Ho-nan, 
are  inscribed  these  salient  facts  of  their  history: 
**  With  respect  to  the  religion  of  Israel,  we  find  that 
onr  first  ancestor  was  Adam.  The  founder  of  the 
religion  was  Abraham  ;  then  came  Moses,  who  estab- 
lished the  Law  and  handed  down  the  Sacred  Writings. 
During  the  dynasty  of  Han  [b.c.  206-a.d.  264]  this 
religion  entered  China.  In  the  second  year  of  Hsiao 
Tsung  of  the  Sung  dynasty  [a.d.  1164],  a  synagogue 
was  erected  in  K'ai-feng  Fu.  Those  who  attempt 
to  represent  God  by  images  or  pictures  do  but  vainly 
occupy  themselves  with  empty  forms.  Those  who 
honor  and  obey  the  Sacred  Writings  know  the  origin 
of  all  things ;  and  eternal  reason  and  the  Sacred 
Writings  mutually  sustain  each  other  in  testifying 
whence  men  derived  their  being.  All  those  who  pro- 
fess this  religion  aim  at  the  practice  of  goodness  and 
avoid  the  commission  of  vice.''  This  stone  of  witness 
makes  no  mention  of  any  great  influence  exerted  by 
their  race  in  China,  though  in  the  fourteenth  century 
they  appear  to  have  been  quite  numerous  and  to  have 
been  scattered  over  the  northern  portion  of  the  Em- 
pire. A  Russian  author.  Professor  VasiFev,  claims 
that  '^they  held  employments  under  the  Government 
and  were  in  possession  of  large  estates,  but  by  the 
close  of  the  seventeenth  century  a  great  part  of  them 
had  been  converted  to  Islam.'' 

3.  Their  present  condition  is  pitiable.  A  mere 
remnant  confined  to  K'ai-feng  Fu  apparently,  in 
numbers  less  than  400  in  all,  unable  to  read  the 
Hebrew  of  their  ancient  scrolls,  their  synagogue  in 
ruins  and  the  religious  assembly  given  up,  and  cir- 
cumcision among  the  younger  generation  no  longer 
performed,  Dr.  Martin's  words  fitly  describe  their 
present  prospects  :  '^  A  rock  rent  from  the  sides  of 
Mount  Zion  by  some  great  national  catastrophe,  and 
projected  into  the  central  plain  of  China,  it  has  stood 
there  while  the  centuries  rolled  by,  sublime  in  its 
antiquity  and  solitude.  It  is  now  on  the  verge  of  be- 
ing swallowed  up  by  the  flood  of  paganism,  and  the 


PREPARATION  AND  BEGINNINGS  79 

spectacle  is  a  mournful  one.  The  Jews  themselves 
are  deeply  conscious  of  their  sad  situation,  and  the 
shadow  of  an  inevitable  destiny  seems  to  be  resting 
upon  them." 

Chinese  Mohammedanism.  —  The  Hui-hui 
Chiao,  as  Chinese  Mohammedans  call  themselves, 
variously  explain  the  character  Tiui.  Professor  Ar- 
nold's belief  is  that  as  it  may  mean  either  '*  return" 
or  '*^ submission,"  their  name  signifies  ''a  return  to 
God  by  the  straight  path,  and  submission  to  the  will 
of  the  Almighty."  A  Chinese  Mohammedan  author 
holds  that  it  is  ''  once  "  twice  repeated,  men  being 
born  once  and  dying  once,  and  that  no  doctrine  is  of 
importance  that  does  not  deal  with  the  Two  Ways  of 
Birth  and  Death.  Dr.  Edkins,  on  the  other  hand, 
makes  it  merely  the  representation  by  Chinese  char- 
acters of  a  Turkish  race-name  applied  to  tribes  in 
Kashgar. 

1.  Their  entrance  into  China  was  by  caravans  in 
the  north  and  by  sea  from  the  south.  The  first 
mosque  in  North  China  was  built  in  742  at  Hsi-an 
Fu,  Shen-hsi.  Making  its  way  into  Kan-su,  a  khan 
was  converted  about  the  middle  of  the  tenth  century, 
and  endeavored  to  force  all  his  subjects  to  become 
believers.  Later,  Mongol  conquests  resulted  in  '^  a 
vast  immigration  of  Mussulmans,  Syrians,  Arabs,  Per- 
sians, and  others  into  the  Chinese  Empire.  .  .  . 
A  great  number  of  them  settled  in  the  country,  and 
developed  into  a  populous  and  flourishing  community, 
gradually  losing  their  racial  peculiarities  by  their 
marriage  with  Chinese  women." 

Their  traditions  say  that  they  first  came  to  Canton 
in  the  sixth  year  of  the  Hegira,  a.d.  628 — known 
as  the  Year  of  Missions — under  the  leadership  of  a 
maternal  uncle  of  Mohammed,  whose  tomb  is  still  an 
object  of  reverence  for  all  Chinese  Moslems.  In  758 
there  were  added  to  their  number  4,000  Arab  soldiers 
who  came,  like  the  Manchus,  to  assist  in  quelling  re- 
bellion, and  who,  like  them,  declined  to  withdraw 
after  it  was  accomplished.     This  and  the  immigra- 


8o  DAJVN  ON  THE  HILLS  OF  T'ANG 

tion  under  the  Mongols  are  the  only  large  accessions 
coming  in  from  without. 

2.  77ieir  increase  to  some  thirty  millions — M.  de 
Thiersant's  estimate,  based  on  data  furnished  over 
twenty  years  ago  by  Chinese  officials,  was  twenty  mil- 
lions for  the  Empire,  while  Dr.  Jessup^s  estimate  of 
four  millions  is  evidently  too  low — is  a  matter  of  in- 
terest to  the  missionary.  If  this  is  the  only  result  of 
twelve  centuries  of  propagandism  within  the  Empire, 
can  Christianity  expect  any  greater  conquests  ? 

Their  growth  in  numbers  is  not  due  to  any  such 
missionary  zeal  as  was  displayed  by  the  Buddhists  or 
by  Protestant  missions,  for  very  little  of  it  has  ever 
been  shown.  It  has  rather  resulted  from  natural  in- 
crease of  the  Mohammedan  section  of  the  population, 
aided  by  compromise  in  objectionable  religious  views, 
the  purchase  of  children  of  poor  parents  in  time  of 
famine,  and  the  instruction  of  even  the  humblest  by 
means  of  metrical  primers  in  Islamic  doctrine.  That 
this  growth  would  have  been  still  larger  had  they  not 
been  proverbially  rebellious,  and  so  subject  to  constant 
decimation — the  Panthay  rebellion  of  1855-74  re- 
sulted in  the  death  of  more  than  two  millions  of  their 
number — is  perfectly  evident.  With  more  than  half 
the  population  of  Kan-su  and  Yiin-nan  Mohammedan, 
one  can  see  the  possibilities  of  even  a  false  faith. 

3.  TJie  present  status  and  practices  of  Mohamme- 
danism will  also  help  to  account  for  its  slow  increase. 
Moslems  go  by  the  appellation  *' Mohammedan 
thieves,"  are  regarded  by  the  people  as  responsible  for 
most  of  the  counterfeiting,  and  are  in  demand  when  a 
deed  of  blood,  such  as  slaughtering  animals  or  execut- 
ing criminals,  is  to  be  done.  '^  The  Chinese  recognize 
in  their  physiognomy,  especially  in  the  nose,  a  proof  of 
the  violent  temper  popularly  ascribed  to  them.  Jests 
at  their  expense  are  common,"  and  the  proverb  runs, 
"  I  said  Mohammedans  are  thieves,  but  according  to 
you  they  are  dogs."  So  far  as  the  literati  are  con- 
cerned, their  rigid  rule  that  the  Koran  must  not  be 
translated  has  kept  it  from  being  known  to  scholars. 


PREPARATION  AND  BEGINNINGS  8 1 

even  to  those  of  their  own  faith.  The  prohibition  of 
the  flesh  of  ^'  the  black  beast  '^  is  a  serious  one  to  a  peo- 
ple who,  in  many  cases,  must  eat  pork  or  refrain  from 
meat  altogether,  while  the  inhibition  of  wine  is  not 
relished  by  a  temperate  people  who  wish  to  imbibe  on 
important  occasions. 

4.  Yet  this  faith  is  not  without  its  advantage  to 
the  Christian  missionary.  The  two  great  features  of 
Mohammedanism,  its  proclamation  of  the  one  true 
God  and  its  denunciation  of  idolatry,  have  come  to 
the  ears  of  many  in  the  Mohammedan  provinces  of 
the  north,  northwest,  south,  and  southwest.  The 
nominal  observance  of  Friday  as  worship-day  and 
the  use  of  certain  theological  terms  have  imparted  an 
inkling  of  Christian  life  and  truth  to  other  few  of  the 
people.  Yet  when  all  has  been  said,  most  mission- 
aries of  Mohammedan  experience  would  probably  pre- 
fer to  work  in  a  field  where  they  are  not  found. 

Nestorian  Christianity. — Though  its  entrance 
into  the  Empire  probably  antedates  that  of  Moham- 
medanism, it  has  been  reserved  until  now  because  of 
its  higher  teachings. 

1.  Traditions  of  some  importance  assert  that  "  the 
Christian  faith  was  carried  to  China,  if  not  by  the 
apostle  Thomas,  by  the  first  teachers  of  Christian- 
ity." As  early  as  300  a.d.,  Arnobius  speaks  of  the 
Christian  deeds  done  among  the  Seres.  The  heretical 
leader,  Mani,  also  very  probably  visited  the  country 
in  the  third  century. 

Yet  the  entrance  of  the  NestorianSy  as  early  as  505 
A.D.  perhaps,  constitutes  the  first  Chinese  Christian 
movement  of  which  we  possess  certain  and  compar- 
atively full  evidence.  Driven  out  of  the  Roman  Em- 
pire, Nestorian  monks  penetrated  into  western  China 
and  thence  spread  eastward  to  the  ocean. 

2.  Built  into  a  brick  wall,  where  it  had  once  stood, 
outside  of  the  ancient  capital  of  Shen-hsi,  Hsi-an  Fa, 
is  the  oldest  Christian  monument  in  the  Empire,  and 
perhaps  the  most  ancient  one  in  all  Asia,  the  birth- 
continent  of  our  faith.     A  fierce  controversy  has  been 

6 


82  DAWN  ON  THE  HILLS  OF  T'ANG 

waged  about  that  tablet  since  its  discovery  in  1625, 
but  the  general  opinion  is  that  it  is  a  genuine  record 
of  the  Nestorian  Church,  dating  from  the  T^ang 
dynasty  and  the  year  781  a.d. 

From  its  florid  and  genuinely  Chinese  periods  one 
can  gather  these  apparent  facts  concerning  the  hey- 
day of  Chinese  Nestorianism.  The  most  virtuous 
Olopun  came  from  Syria,  and  after  "  beholding  the 
direction  of  the  wind  he  braved  difficulties  and  dan- 
gers/' arriving  in  the  Empire  a.d.  635.  The  illus- 
trious T^ai  Tsung,  who  then  occupied  the  throne, 
conducted  his  guest  into  the  interior,  *^the  sacred 
books  were  translated  in  the  imperial  library,  the 
sovereign  investigated  the  subject  in  his  private  apart- 
ments ;  when,  becoming  deeply  impressed  with  the 
rectitude  and  truth  of  the  religion,  he  gave  special 
orders  for  its  dissemination."  If  the  record  can  be 
believed,  later  emperors  favored  the  new  faith  and 
caused  Illustrious  Churches  to  be  erected  in  every 
province.  '*^  While  this  doctrine  pervaded  every 
channel,  the  State  became  enriched  and  tranquillity 
abounded.  Every  city  was  full  of  churches  and  the 
royal  family  enjoyed  lustre  and  happiness.^'  The 
machinations  of  opposing  Buddhists  seem  to  have 
come  to  naught,  and  the  faith  spread  in  spite  of  all 
opposition. 

3.  If  the  Nestorian  monument  truly  reflects  the 
doctrines  taught,  China  must  have  been  much  bene- 
fited, though  in  their  enunciation  there  is  an  evident 
accommodation  to  Chinese  beliefs.  The  great  truths 
of  Christianity,  with  the  exception  of  the  Crucifixion 
and  the  Atonement,  were  proclaimed,  and  the  Em- 
peror T^ai  Tsung  himself,  on  the  Incarnation  day,  is 
said  to  have  '^  bestowed  celestial  incense  and  ordered 
the  performance  of  a  service  of  merit.''  Better  still, 
the  lives  of  the  propagators  of  the  Illustrious  Eeligion, 
as  Nestorianism  was  called,  were  apparently  consistent 
with  their  assertion,  "Now  without  holy  men  prin- 
ciples cannot  become  expanded  ;  without  principles 
holy  men  cannot  become  magnified ;  but  with  holy 


PREPARATION  AND  BEGINNINGS  83 

men  and  right  principles,  united  as  the  two  parts  of 
a  signet,  the  world  becomes  civilized  and  enlightened/' 

4.  Later  Nestorianism  in  China  ill  deserved  the 
name  of  Illustrious  Religion.  An  imperial  edict  of 
the  year  845  commands  3,000  of  its  priests  to  retire 
to  private  life,  while  Arabian  travellers,  a  century 
later,  report  the  death  of  many  Christians  in  the  siege 
of  Canfu.  Marco  Polo  speaks  of  them  as  being  both 
numerous  and  respected  in  the  thirteenth  century. 
Barring  that  ignis  fatuus  of  mediaeval  history, 
Prester  John,  who  bears  many  Nestorian  features, 
and  who  was  the  fabled  Christian  priest-king  of  Asia, 
the  Nestorian  faith  can  boast  of  nothing  in  later  cen- 
turies. They  *'  suffered  much,  but  maintained  a 
precarious  footing  in  China  during  the  time  of  the 
Yiian  dynasty,  having  been  cut  off  from  all  help  and 
intercourse  from  the  mother  Church  since  the  rise  of 
the  Moslems.  They  had  ceased  long  before  this  pe- 
riod to  maintain  the  purity  of  the  faith,  however, 
and  had  apparently  done  nothing  to  teach  and  diffuse 
the  Bible,  which  the  tablet  intimates  was  in  part  or  in 
whole  translated  by  Olopun,  under  the  Emperor's 
auspices.''  To-day  Nestorian  churches,  hooks,  and 
Christians  are  no  longer  to  be  found  in  China,  and 
even  the  noble  monument  of  those  apostles  of  an 
earlier  and  purer  faith  was  found  in  1893  to  be  laid 
low,  and  part  of  the  inscription  was  defaced,  the  work 
of  malicious  hands,  apparently. 

5.  The  Christian  Church  in  China  may  perhaps  owe 
to  Nestorianism  its  first  translation  of  the  Word  of 
God,  though  it  has  long  since  perished.  It  certainly 
has  conferred  upon  the  Church  these  benefits.  One 
appeals  to  the  Chinese  because  of  its  antiquity,  viz., 
the  historic  testimony  concerning  the  early  introduc- 
tion of  Christianity  into  the  Empire.  A  rubbing  of 
the  Nestorian  tablet,  or  a  reduced  photograph  of  the 
same  hung  in  Christian  chapels  and  explained  to  the 
people,  would  do  much  to  remove  the  charge  of  its 
being  a  novel  and  strange  doctrine  recently  foisted 
upon  a  credulous  few  by  designing  foieigners.     Tkm 


84  DAIVN  ON  THE  HILLS  OF  T'ANG 

inscription,  with  a  copy  of  the  contemporaneons  edict 
of  their  famous  T'ai  Tsung,  quoted  from  on  the  mon- 
ument., is  a  witness  from  the  past  of  the  utmost  value 
to  men  who  almost  worship  antiquity.  A  second  ben- 
efit coming  to  the  Chinese  Church  from  the  vanished 
glory  of  the  Illustrious  Religion  is  the  warning  against 
compromise,  which  is  the  apparent  secret  of  its  utter 
decay.  As  Dr.  George  Smith  has  said  of  Indian  Nes- 
torianism  :  "Nestorius  is  the  representative  of  thos© 
who  preach  a  Christ  less  than  divine,  and  who  have, 
therefore,  ever  failed  to  convert  mankind.  .  .  . 
This  fact  of  compromise  must  be  remembered  when 
we  proceed  to  look  at  the  otherwise  bright  missionary 
progress  of  Nestorian  Christianity  in  Asia,  central, 
east,  and  south."  The  third  one  is  also  a  word  of 
warning.  Their  aim  seemed  to  be  to  gain  first  the 
rulers  of  the  land,  and  they  boasted  much  of  imperial 
favor,  while  little  was  said  of  work  among  the  com- 
mon people.  This  reversal  of  Christ's  law,  "  To  the 
poor  the  gospel  is  preached,"  may  largely  account  for 
their  ultimate  failure. 

A  further  possible  benefit  conferred  by  this  faith  is 
found  in  the  suggestion  that  the  seeds  of  Christian 
truth  taught  by  men  of  the  secret  sects  may  have 
been  derived  from  Nestorian  teaching.  Though  not 
proven,  it  is  possible  that  Christian  phrases,  used  by 
certain  of  the  sects,  and  fragments  of  Nestorian 
prayers,  are  to-day  being  uttered  in  secret  by  their 
members  in  many  a  city  and  province  of  China,  thus 
perpetuating  the  real  life  of  these  ancient  Chinese 
Christians,  long  after  their  Church  has  perished. 

Catholicism's  First  Stadium  in  China. — 1. 
Rome's  first  great  apostle  to  the  Chinese  was  John  of 
Montecorvino,  who  arrived  in  India  in  1291,  preached 
there  successfully  for  a  year,  and  thence  proceeded 
with  a  caravan  to  the  court  of  Kublai  Khan.  In 
spite  of  Nestorian  opposition  he  had,  at  the  expira- 
tion of  eleven  years,  a  baptized  following  of  nearly 
6,000  persons,  a  church  at  Peking  with  *'  a  steeple 
and  belfry  with  three  bells  that  were  rung  every  hour 


PREPA RA  TION  A ND  BEGINNINGS '  85 

to  summon  the  new  converts  to  prayer,"  and  he  had 
bought  one  hundred  and  fifty  children,  whom  he  in- 
structed in  Greek  and  Latin  and  composed  for  them 
several  devotional  books.  The  story  of  his  missionary 
life  he  thus  gave  :  "It  is  now  twelve  years  since  I 
have  heard  any  news  from  the  West.  I  am  become 
old  and  grayheaded,  but  it  is  rather  through  labors 
and  tribulations  than  through  age,  for  I  am  only  fifty- 
eight  years  old.  I  have  learned  the  Tartar  language 
and  literature,  into  which  I  have  translated  the  whole 
New  Testament  and  the  Psalms  of  David,  and  have 
caused  them  to  be  transcribed  with  the  utmost  care. 
I  write  and  read  and  preach  openly  and  freely  the 
testimony  of  the  law  of  Christ."  If  Catholic  his- 
torians truly  depict  this  hero  of  the  faith,  one  can 
well  believe  that  at  his  death  in  1328,  ''  after  having 
converted  more  than  30,000  infidels,"  "all  the  in- 
habitants of  Cambaluc  [Peking],  without  distinction, 
mourned  for  the  man  of  God,  and  both  Christiana 
and  Pagans  were  present  at  the  funeral  ceremonies, 
the  latter  rending  their  garments  in  token  of  grief." 

2.  The  labors  of  Ms  successor,  Nicholas,  and  his 
twenty-four  Franciscan  assistants  seem  to  have  been 
almost  wholly  for  the  Mongol  tribes  instead  of  for  the 
Chinese,  over  whom  the  Mongol  emperors  ruled.  If 
this  is  correct,  it  largely  accounts  for  the  fact  that 
after  the  overthrow  of  the  Mongols  by  the  Ming  dy- 
nasty, both  Nestorians  and  Catholics  sink  out  of 
sight,  having,  it  is  supposed,  "  lapsed  into  ignorance 
and  thence  easily  into  Mohammedanism  and  Bud- 
dhism." The  Pope's  order  to  have  "  the  mysteries  of 
the  Bible  represented  by  pictures  in  all  the  churches, 
for  the  purpose  of  captivating  the  barbarians,"  may 
have  served  a  temporary  purpose,  but  such  thin  soil 
was  incapable  of  supporting  the  plant  after  the  fierce 
sun  of  persecution  arose  upon  it. 

3.  As  one  roams  over  the  Mongolian  plateau  and 
sees  everywhere  evidence  of  the  mighty  grasp  of  Ti- 
betan Buddhism,  which  holds  in  its  sway  not  only  the 
oldest  son  of  each  family  as  a  priest  of  Buddha,  but 


86  DAlv^r  on-  the  hills  of  t'ang 

which  dominates  every  member  of  the  family  as  well, 
one  cannot  but  mourn  over  a  possible  *'  it  might  have 
been'*  of  Christian  history.  Professor  Douglas,  in 
writing  of  Kublai  Khan,  says  :  ''Had  his  endeavor  to 
procure  European  priests  for  the  instruction  of  his 
people,  of  which  we  know  through  Marco  Polo,  pros- 
pered, the  Eoman  Catholic  Church,  which  did  gain 
some  ground  under  his  successors,  might  have  taken 
stronger  root  in  China.  Failing  this  momentary  ef- 
fort, Kublai  probably  saw  in  the  organized  force  of 
Tibetan  Buddhism  the  readiest  instrument  in  the  civ- 
ilization of  his  countrymen,  and  that  system  received 
his  special  countenance."  A  similar  crisis  now  con- 
fronts Protestant  Christianity.  Is  the  future  historian 
to  write  against  her  fair  name  a  similar  charge  ? 

The  Second  Catholic  Entrance. — After  Xavier, 
the  St.  Paul  of  Eoman  missionaries,  had  fallen  on 
sleep  beside  the  sleepless  China  Sea,  his  successor, 
Valignani,  exclaimed  in  sadness  as  he  gazed  on  the 
mountains  of  China,  ''  0,  mighty  fortress  !  when  shall 
these  impenetrable  brazen  gates  of  thine  be  broken 
through  ?  "  The  key  to  those  gates  was  placed  in  the 
hands  of  the  Italian  Jesuit,  Matteo  Ricci,  and  they 
were  unlocked  and  stood  ajar  until  one  hundred  and 
fifty  years  later,  when  the  decree  of  the  Emperor 
Yung  Cheng  closed  them  again. 

1.  The  hero  of  the  first  part  of  this  period  was  a 
man  who  stands  foremost  among  Catholic  mission- 
aries "for  skill,  perseverance,  learning,  and  tact." 
Ricci  came  first  to  the  Portuguese  settlement  of  Ma- 
cao, but  soon  gained  entrance  to  China  itself  by  a 
proceeding  characteristic  of  the  man  and  of  Rome's 
methods  in  the  Empire.  He  and  his  companion  ap- 
plied to  the  Governor  of  Kuang-tung  for  permission 
to  build  on  the  mainland,  since  ''  they  had  at  last  as- 
certained with  their  own  eyes  that  the  Celestial  Em- 
pire was  even  superior  to  its  brilliant  renown.  They 
therefore  desired  to  end  their  days  in  it,  and  wished 
to  obtain  a  little  land  to  construct  a  house  and  a 
church  where  they  mi^ht  pass  their  time  in  prayer 


PREPARATION  AND  BEGINNINGS  87 

and  study,  in  solitude  and  meditation."  With  sim- 
ilar duplicity  he  posed  in  turn  as  Buddhist  priest,  as 
scholar,  as  philosopher,  and  as  official,  as  seemed 
most  expedient,  but  always  with  his  eyes  fixed  on 
Peking  and  the  occupant  of  the  Dragon  Throne.  His 
indomitable  energy  finally  brought  him  within  Pe- 
king's tunnel-like  portals  on  July  4,  1601.  Once  in 
the  capital,  his  learning,  pleasing  manners,  and  ju- 
dicious distribution  of  presents  gained  him  favor 
among  those  in  authority  and  won  for  the  Church 
many  adherents. 

His  extremely  busy  life  in  Peking  was  filled  with 
manifold  labors.  Visitors,  who  were  never  turned 
away,  and  new  converts  who  were  to  be  warmly  wel- 
comed, thronged  his  residence.  As  head  of  the  China 
mission  with  its  four  stations,  an  exhausting  corre- 
spondence must  be  carried  on.  His  relation  to  the 
Court  and  high  officials  and  scholars  entailed  a  griev- 
ous burden  upon  him.  A  still  more  trying  ordeal  was 
the  correspondence  arising  from  inquiries  coming 
from  all  parts  of  the  Empire  concerning  the  doctrines 
taught  by  him  and  the  books  which  he  had  published. 

His  literary  labors  were  extremely  important  to  the 
work.  Rarely  has  a  foreigner  succeeded  so  well  as  he 
in  clothing  foreign  and  Christian  ideas  in  so  attractive 
a  Chinese  dress.  In  the  topics  chosen  he  also  adapted 
himself  to  tho  '^'jaste  of  the  literati.  Themes  such  as 
Friendship,  Years  Past  no  Longer  Ours,  Man  a  So- 
journer on  Earth,  Advantage  of  Frequent  Contem- 
plation of  Eternity,  Future  Eeward  and  Punishment, 
Prying  into  Futurity  Hastens  Calamity,  etc.,  were 
pleasingly  discussed.  His  Hsi-kuo  Fa,  or  ^'Art  of 
Memory  as  Practiced  in  the  AVest,"  was  especially 
popular,  the  more  so  since  Ricci  was  himself  an  ex- 
pert in  mnemonics.  A  map  of  his,  which  was  pre- 
pared on  a  peculiar  projection  to  give  the  Chinese  an 
idea  that  their  land  was  indeed  the  middle  kingdom, 
was  widely  used  and  did  much  to  remove  the  disgust 
occasioned  by  ordinary  maps  in  which  China  appears 
only  as  a  little  corner  of  the  world.     His  religious 


DAWN  ON  THE  HILLS  OF  T'ANG 


writings,  the  best  of  which  is  perhaps  the  ''  Veritable 
Doctrine  of  the  Lord  of  Heaven,"  are  not  aggressively 
Christian,  and  naturally  the  doctrine  of  faith  in 
Christ  is  but  slightly  touched  upon,  while  he  gives 
much  space  to  parallels  between  Christianity  and  the 
teachings  of  Confucianism. 

Decisions  as  to  certain  questions,  which  were  main- 
ly due  to  Ricci,  kindled  a  fierce  controversy  which 
was  waged  for  a  century  by  the  Jesuits  and  other 
Catholic  orders.  Colonel  Yule  thus  summarizes  them  : 
"  The  chief  points  of  controversy  were  (1)  the  lawful- 
ness and  expediency  of  certain  terms  employed  by  the 
Jesuits  in  naming  God  Almighty,  such  as  T'ien, 
Heaven,  and  Shang  Ti,  Supreme  Ruler  or  Emperor, 
instead  of  T*ien  Chu,  Lord  of  Heaven,  and  in  particu- 
lar the  erection  of  inscribed  tablets  in  the  churches, 
on  which  these  terms  were  made  use  of  ;  (2)  in  respect 
to  the  ceremonial  offerings  made  in  honor  of  Confu- 
cius and  of  personal  ancestors,  which  Ricci  had  recog- 
nized as  merely  civil  observances  ;  (3)  the  erection  of 
tablets  in  honor  of  ancestors  in  private  houses ;  and  (4), 
more  generally,  sanction  and  favor  accorded  to  ancient 
Chinese  sacred  books  and  philosophical  doctrine,  as 
not  really  trespassing  on  Christian  faith."  While 
Ricci  and  the  other  Jesuits  favored  compromise  meas- 
ures, and  consequently  were  supported  by  the  Chinese 
and  even  the  great  Emperor  K*^ang  Hsi,  as  well  as  by 
one  of  the  popes,  the  other  orders  held  to  the  Chris- 
tian view  of  allegiance  to  truth  rather  than  to  expe- 
diency, and  with  the  support  of  another  papal  de- 
cree, their  views  finally  prevailed. 

Catholic  writers,  usually  his  opposers,  have  given 
Ricci  rather  a  hard  character.  One  cnn  agree  with 
them  when  they  write  :  '*  Being  more  a  politician  than 
a  theologian,  he  discovered  the  secret  of  remaining 
peacefully  in  China.  The  kings  found  in  him  a  man 
full  of  complaisance  ;  the  pagans,  a  minister  who  ac- 
commodated himself  to  their  superstitions  ;  the  man- 
darins, a  polite  courtier  skilled  in  all  the  trickery  of 
courts."    An  impartial   student  of  his  life  woul 


BUDDHIST    TEMPLE,    SOUTH    CHINA 


^fh. 


^IC'^^ 


BRONZE    ASTRONOMICAL    INSTRUMENTS    MADE    BY    JESUITS 


PREPARATION  AND  BEGINNINGS  89 

hardly  venture  to  assent,  however,  to  their  assertion 
that  he  was  a  faithful  servant  of  the  devil,  **  who, 
far  from  destroying,  established  his  reign  among  the 
heathen,  and  even  extended  it  to  the  Christians.'* 

2.  Later  Catholic  leaders  of  this  early  period  were 
men  of  great  ability,  though  less  open  to  criticism 
than  the  crafty  Ricci.  The  talented  and  learned  Ger- 
man Jesuit,  Schall,  at  one  time  tutor  of  the  Emperor 
K^ang  Hsi ;  Faber,  the  miracle-working  saint  of  Shen- 
hsi,  and  Verbiest,  of  whom  a  competent  witness  says, 
"  No  foreigner  has  ever  enjoyed  so  great  power  and 
confidence  from  the  rulers  of  China  as  this  priest," 
were  men  who  did  much  for  China  as  well  as  for  their 
Church. 

But  worldly  favor  speedily  changes  its  '^  Hosanna  !  *' 
to  *^  Crucify  him  !  *'  and  Catholicism  gradually  be- 
came much  hampered  in  its  loork.  Persecution  in 
the  provinces  affected  both  missionary  and  convert ; 
and  though  at  court  Catholic  scholars  were  tolerated, 
it  was  mainly  because  of  their  secular  services  as  as- 
tronomers, scientists,  surveyors  of  the  Empire,  etc., 
that  they  were  held  in  esteem.  Finally,  the  rivalries 
and  opposition  of  popes  and  priests  to  one  another, 
and  to  the  opinion  of  K'ang  Hsi  caused  Yung  Cheng 
to  issue  his  order  of  1724,  strictly  prohibiting  the 
propagation  of  the  T'ien  Chu  Chiao,  or  Lord  of 
Heaven  Sect. 

3.  K  period  of  eclipse  followed,  which  practically 
lasted  until  the  treaties  of  1858  inaugurated  a  new 
era.  During  these  thirteen  decades  persecution,  ex- 
ile, imprisonment,  and  death  were  common  experi- 
ences, and  some  of  the  most  heroic  and  devoted  deeds 
are  recorded  of  both  missionaries  and  their  converts. 
At  risk  of  life  converts  stood  by  the  Church  and  its 
leaders  in  a  way  that  was  a  prophecy  full  of  hope  for 
the  time  when  the  Protestant  Church  was  to  be  sub- 
ject to  similar  trials.  In  spite  of  all  opposition 
400,000  converts  were  enrolled  in  the  Church  in  1846 
and  eighty  foreign  missionaries  ministered  to  their 
scattered  flocks. 


go  DAWN  ON  THE  HILLS   OF  T'ANG 

4.  Since  1858  Catholic  missions  have  prospered. 
Old  occasions  of  much  friction  have  been  removed  by 
the  apportionment  of  the  different  orders  to  sections 
by  themselves,  so  that  Jesuit  and  Dominican  no  longer 
need  war  each  upon  the  other.  Diplomacy  of  Euro- 
pean Catholic  powers  has  by  means  not  always  be- 
yond criticism  gained  for  Catholicism — and  hence,  by 
the  *'  most  favored  nation  clause,'^  for  Protestants 
also — toleration  and  protection.  Church  property, 
practically  sequestered  during  the  decades  of  eclipse, 
nas  been  again  restored,  often  with  most  astonishing 
and  dubious  enlargement,  and  lay  brothers  of  keen 
business  instincts  have  dealt  in  property  desired  by 
foreigners  in  a  way  that  renders  some  missions  self- 
supporting.  Imposing  churches  have  been  built,  in 
one  case  with  a  roof  of  imperial  tiles  surreptitiously 
secured  and  painted,  so  that  their  real  character  would 
become  only  slowly  apparent,  and  progress  is  evident 
all  along  the  line. 

5.  A  word  about  Catholic  methods  must  suffice. 
From  the  outset  they  have  sought  to  adapt  them- 
selves to  the  people  and  to  the  popular  need.  If 
curiosity  filled  the  mind  of  officials  and  the  Court, 
curious  clocks  and  other  AVestern  novelties  were  used. 
Science  being  demanded,  they  were  mathematicians, 
surveyors,  and  astronomers.  They  may  have  gone  too 
far  in  becoming  all  things  to  all  men,  but  their  idea 
is  worthy  of  careful  consideration  in  our  day  of  na- 
tional transformation  and  new  needs. 

Practical  charity  has  never  been  forgotten,  and  the 
labors  of  a  consecrated  company  of  Sisters  of  Charity 
must  not  be  forgotten.  Orphan  asylums  and  the  work 
of  teaching  girls  those  arts  which  are  needed  in  the 
Christian  home,  as  well  as  branches  of  learning  that 
will  be  useful,  have  been  of  great  value  to  the  Church. 

The  native  convert  has  not  been  forgotten  in  his  re- 
lation to  his  family  and  the  native  Church.  The  rais- 
ing of  European  vegetables,  and  arts,  such  as  those  of 
watch-repairing,  electro-plating, etc.,  have  been  taught 
by  the  missionaries,  thus  enabling  converts  to  be  self- 


PREPARATION-  AND  BEGINNINGS  QI 

supporting.  Tidiness  and  self-respect,  as  well  as  de- 
votion to  the  Church,  are  assiduously  inculcated. 

Nor  is  the  convert^s  usefulness  to  the  Church  forgot- 
ten. From  the  day  that  the  noble  Hsii  and  his  daugh- 
ter Candida  were  won  by  Ricci  to  the  present  time, 
they  have  been  used.  While  few  have  approached 
the  usefulness  of  Candida,  who  built  "thirty-nine 
churches  in  different  provinces  and  printed  130 
Christian  books  for  her  countrymen,'^  as  well  as  set 
blind  story-tellers  at  work  telling  the  Gospel  story, 
they  have  been  used  by  the  priests  for  the  good  of 
Mother  Church  in  many  ways. 

Other  features  have  not  been  so  praiseworthy. 
Thus  one  cannot  rejoice  with  the  many  Catholic  writ- 
ers who  have  told  of  the  great  accessions,  won  by 
women  mainly,  who  figure  as  amateur  doctors  and 
visit  homes  where  children  lie  at  the  point  of  death, 
and  who,  hy  ih-h pieuse  r^ise,  baptize  *^  seven  or  eight 
thousand  infants  every  year."  Nor  can  one  approve 
of  the  activity  of  the  foreign  priests  in  supporting 
converts  who  have  law-suits,  though  this  practice  se- 
cures many  accessions. 

Pere  Eipa  has  brought  against  his  missionary  hreth- 
ren  charges  that  still  largely  lay  at  their  door.  He 
accounts  for  their  lack  of  wide  influence  by  their 
feeble  attempts  to  gain  an  accurate  use  of  the  lan- 
guage, their  imitation  of  officials  in  their  dress,  their 
mode  of  travel,  their  haughty  isolation  from  the 
common  people,  and  their  relegation  of  preaching  and 
the  main  care  of  converts  to  the  native  catechists. 

6.  Catholicism's  relation  to  Protestant  missionaries 
and  their  work  is  a  blot  on  the  name  of  the  Church, 
from  which  one  would  gladly  turn  away.  Until  com- 
paratively recently  their  policy  was  simply  that  of 
*'  let  alone,''  but  at  present  it  is  quite  otherwise.  Be- 
ginning first  as  a  system  of  proselyting  among  Prot- 
estant Chinese,  it  has  proceeded  to  most  active  op- 
position, amounting  often  to  bitter  persecution  of 
Chinese  Christians.  Being  fearless  of  law-suits  be- 
cause of  Catholic  protection,  and  unscrupulous  as  to 


92  DAWN  ON  THE  HILLS  OF  T'ANG 

method  if  only  the  Church  is  the  gainer,  they  have 
repeatedly  attempted  to  blot  out  weak  Protestant  com- 
munities. While  this  has  been  mainly  confined  to 
three  or  four  provinces,  and  has  probably  been  little 
encouraged  by  the  missionaries  themselves,  the  evil  is 
a  growing  one,  and  must  be  reckoned  with  in  fore- 
casting Protestantism's  future  in  China.  It  should 
be  added  that  most  of  the  criticisms  of  missions  made 
by  the  Chinese  and  by  anti-missionary  foreigners,  in- 
cluding nearly  every  item  of  any  validity,  are  charge- 
able to  the  policy  and  work  of  Catholic  missions, 
though  these  critics  do  not  discriminate  between 
Catholics  and  Protestants  in  their  accusations. 

7.  While  it  is  believed  that  the  above  strictures 
would  be  agreed  to  by  any  impartial  writer  cognizant 
of  the  facts,  the  other  side  of  the  case  should  be  borne 
in  mind.  Drs.  Milne  and  Medhurst,  early  Protestant 
missionaries  of  catholicity  and  candor,  thus  testify  to 
the  merits  of  these  first  modern  occupants  of  the 
field. 

Dr.  Milne  wrote :  "  The  learning,  personal  virt- 
ues, and  ardent  zeal  of  some  of  them,  deserve  to  be 
imitated  by  all  future  missionaries  ;  will  be  equalled 
by  few,  and,  perhaps,  rarely  exceeded  by  any.  Their 
steadfastness  and  triumph  in  the  midst  of  persecu- 
tions, even  to  blood  and  death,  in  all  imaginable 
forms,  show  that  the  questionable  Christianity  which 
they  taught  is  to  be  ascribed  to  the  effect  of  educa- 
tion, not  design,  and  affords  good  reason  to  believe 
that  they  have  long  since  joined  the  army  of  mar- 
tyrs, and  are  now  wearing  the  crown  of  those  who 
spared  not  their  lives  unto  the  death,  but  overcame 
by  the  blood  of  the  Lamb  and  the  word  of  His  testi- 
mony. It  is  not  to  be  doubted  that  many  sinners 
were,  through  their  labors,  turned  from  sin  to  holi- 
ness, and  they  will  finally  have  due  praise  from  God 
as  fellow-workers  in  His  Kingdom. '^ 

Dr.  Medhurst  further  testified :  *'  Some  idea  of 
their  doctrines  may  be  gathered  from  the  books 
which  they  have  published  in  the  Chinese  language. 


PREPARATION  AND  BEGINNINGS  93 

Many  of  these  are  written  in  a  Incid  and  elegant 
style,  and  discuss  the  points  at  issue  between  Chris- 
tians and  Confucians  in  a  masterly  and  conclusive 
manner.  Their  doctrinal  and  devotional  works  are 
clear  on  the  Trinity  and  the  Incarnation,  while  the 
perfections  of  the  Deity,  the  corruption  of  human 
nature,  and  redemption  by  Christ  are  fully  stated ; 
and  though  some  unscriptural  notions  are  now  and 
then  introduced,  yet,  all  things  considered,  it  is 
quite  possible  for  humble  and  patient  learners  to  dis- 
cover by  such  teaching  their  sinful  condition,  and 
trace  out  the  way  of  salvation  through  a  Eedeemer. 
It  must  not  be  forgotten,  also,  that  the  Catholics 
translated  the  major  part  of  the  New  Testament  into 
Chinese,  and  though  there  is  no  evidence  of  its  hav- 
ing been  published,  yet  large  portions  of  the  gospels 
and  epistles  were  inserted  in  the  lessons  printed  for 
the  congregations.  As  it  regards  the  sciences,  the 
Catholics  have  done  much  to  develop  them  to  the 
Chinese ;  and  a  native  who  had  been  instructed  by 
them  lately  published  a  treatise  on  astronomy  and 
geography  which  has  been  highly  esteemed  and 
widely  circulated.  The  Romish  missionaries  have 
not  been  remiss  in  preparing  works  for  the  elucida- 
tion of  the  Chinese  language  to  Europeans.''  He 
might  also  have  added  that  nearly  all  of  value  that 
was  known  concerning  China  in  the  Occident  until 
the  nineteenth  century  came  from  Catholic  sources. 

With  any  disadvantage  to  the  cause  of  Protestant 
missions  arising  from  the  presence  of  Catholic  Chris- 
tians, it  certainly  means  considerable  for  the  King- 
dom of  God  that  in  sixteen  of  the  provinces,  includ- 
ing hostile  Hu-nan,  as  well  as  in  Manchuria  and 
Mongolia,  are  European  missionaries  and  Catholic 
converts,  numbering  720,540,  according  to  statistics 
of  1901. 

The  Greek  Church  in  China.— The  bare  fact 
only  needs  to  be  mentioned  that  this  communion 
gained  an  entrance  in  1685  into  Peking,  where  it  has 
since  had  its  chief  seat.    A  treaty  made  with  Russia 


<J4  DAWN'  ON  THE  HILLS  OF  T'ANG 

fonr  years  later  permitted  the  establishment  of  a 
college  for  Greek  priests.  It  has  had  some  scholars 
of  note,  like  the  Archimandrite  Palladius,  but  their 
literary  work  has  been  confined  mainly  to  Chinese 
and  Russian,  and  so  has  done  little  for  modern  mis- 
sions. Considerable  assistance  has,  however,  been 
derived  from  their  Chinese  versions  by  Protestant 
Bible  translators.  Since  the  Boxer  Uprising  and  the 
martyrdom  of  many  Russian  Church  Christians,  new 
activity  has  been  shown  in  the  work.  Thus  far  it  has 
been  confined  to  Mongolia,  especially  in  the  city  of 
XJrga,  and  to  the  province  of  Chih-li. 


VI 

THE  PROTESTANT  OCCUPATIOl^-  OF  CHINA 

All  the  religions  movements,  detailed  in  the  pre- 
vious chapter,  were  to  a  greater  or  less  degree  pre- 
paratory for  the  work  of  Protestantism.  Yet,  as  has 
been  suggested,  every  one  of  them,  the  work  of  Rome 
not  excepted,  had  also  sown  many  tares  in  the  field, 
which  have  proven  a  greater  embarrassment  in  many 
cases  than  the  good  seed  has  been  of  help.  The  be- 
ginning of  the  Protestant  enterprise  was  accordingly 
beset  with  difficulties.  The  edict  of  1724  was  still 
in  force,  and  the  few  Catholic  missionaries  in  the 
country  were  mainly  in  hiding. 

Protestantism's  Pioneer. — Notwithstanding  the 
extensive  work  of  Catholicism  in  the  Empire  and  its 
inculcation  of  most  of  the  great  truths  of  Revela- 
tion, Dr.  Williams,  in  his  sketch  of  Robert  Morrison, 
regards  him,  rather  than  Rome,  as  having  laid  the 
foundations  of  the  Church  of  Christ  in  China. 

1.  This  last  and  boot-tree  maker  of  Newcastle-upon- 
Tyne  journeyed  from  England  to  China  via  America, 
and  during  his  early  career  lived  with  the  Americans 
at  Canton.  Morrison  had  been  planning  to  go  to 
Timbuctoo,  but  in  being  sent  to  China  God  had  an- 
swered his  prayer  that  He  ''  would  station  him  in  that 
part  of  the  missionary  field  where  the  difficulties 
were  the  greatest,  and,  to  all  human  appearance,  the 
most  insurmountable.^'  He  arrived  not  only  with  a 
letter  from  our  Secretary  of  State  to  the  United 
States  consul,  but  also  with  a  preparation  unusually 
complete  for  that  day.  He  had  whetted  his  memory 
to  attack  Chinese  by  a  use  of  the  119th  Psalm  and 
other  mnemonic  tests,  and  had  further  prepared  him- 

95 


96 


DA  JVN  ON  THE  HILLS  OF  TANG 


self  for  his  future  field  by  the  acquisition  of  a  theo- 
logical education  and  a  fair  acquaintance  with  medi- 
cine and  astronomy,  and  he  had  transcribed  two 
manuscripts,  one  a  Chinese  translation  of  the  New 
Testament  as  far  as  Hebrews — probably  by  a  Catholic 
missionary — the  other  a  Latin  and  Chinese  diction- 
ary. He  had  also  begun  in  London  and  continued 
on  shipboard  the  study  of  the  spoken  language  under 
a  Cantonese  teacher  named  Yang. 

2.  His  twenty-seven  years  of^  Chinese  service  are 
thus  summarized  in  the  inscription  upon  his  tomb  iu 
the  resting-place  for  the  Protestant  dead  at  Macao : 
"Sacred  to  the  memory  of  Robert  Morrison,  D.D., 
the  first  Protestant  missionary  to  China,  where,  after 
a  service  of  twenty-seven  years  cheerfully  spent  in 
extending  the  Kingdom  of  the  Blessed  Redeemer, 
during  which  period  he  compiled  and  published  a 
Dictionary  of  the  Chinese  Language,  founded  the 
Anglo-Chinese  College  at  Malacca,  and  for  several 
years  labored  alone  on  a  Chinese  version  of  the  Holy 
Scriptures,  which  he  was  spared  to  see  completed 
and  widely  circulated  among  those  for  whom  it  was 
destined,  he  sweetly  slept  in  Jesus.  He  was  born  at 
Morpeth,  in  Northumberland,  January  6,  1782,  was 
sent  to  China  by  the  London  Missionary  Society  in 
1807,  was  for  twenty-five  years  Chinese  translator  in 
the  employ  of  the  East  India  Company,  and  died  at 
Canton  August  1,  1834/' 

One  must  read  many  things  between  the  lines  of 
this  inscription.  His  service  under  the  Company, 
besides  being  a  necessity,  if  he  would  remain  in  the 
Empire  instead  of  laboring  on  its  fringe,  as  did  his 
early  associates,  was  also  the  means  of  securing  a 
liberal  salary  with  which  he  greatly  aided  other  mis- 
sionary schemes,  the  Malacca  Anglo- Chinese  College 
in  particular.  The  difficulty  of  obtaining  a  teacher 
was  so  great  that  when  he  secured  a  Pekingese  of  the 
Catholic  faith,  this  man  carried  about  poison  with 
which  to  commit  suicide,  if  his  countrymen  detected 
him  in  his  unlawful  employment.     Weary  and  as* 


THE  PROTESTANT  OCCUPATION  OF  CHINA  97 

sidnons  private  labors  secured  Morrison  his  first  con- 
vert, Tsai  Ako,  in  1814,  but  as  he  was  never  suffered 
to  preach  in  public,  he  won  only  a  few  during  his 
entire  career.  Schemes  of  various  sorts,  calculated 
to  benefit  foreigners  and  the  Chinese,  found  in  him 
their  cordial  supporter,  though  it  must  be  confessed 
that  a  few  of  these  were  somewhat  visionary.  While 
Morrison  possessed  none  of  those  charms  which  made 
Ricci  so  acceptable  to  the  Chinese,  unlike  the  latter, 
he  never  stooped  to  compromise,  but  laboriously  laid 
those  strong  and  deep  foundations  that  have  ever 
since  characterized  the  work  of  Protestant  missions. 
In  a  word,  he  was  to  China  very  much  what  Carey 
was  to  India. 

War  and  Missions. — The  Protestant  beginnings 
had  been  made,  but  missions  at  Morrison's  death  were 
greatly  hampered.  How  were  these  restrictions  to 
be  removed  ?  The  answer  can  partly  be  found  in 
the  Hebrew  statement,  "  The  Lord  is  a  man  of  war,'' 
and  though  these  wars  were  in  some  cases  without 
justification.  He  caused  good  to  spring  from  the  evil 
doing  of  men. 

1.  The  Opium  War,  as  it  is  called,  grew  out  of 
what  the  Chinese  regarded  as  an  undoubted  right 
and  duty,  while  the  English  could  with  some  justice 
take  the  stringent  measures  employed  by  them.  The 
destruction  by  the  Chinese  of  20,283  chests  of  opi- 
um, brought  to  their  shores  in  foreign  bottoms,  and 
their  haughty  and  unwise  conduct  accompanying 
this  action,  led  to  a  war  lasting  from  July  5,  1841,  to 
September  15,  1842,  when  the  Nanking  treaty  was 
ratified. 

While  much  can  be  said  in  defence  of  Britain's 
action,  and  though  Queen  Victoria's  order  recites 
that  "  satisfaction  and  reparation  for  the  late  inju- 
rious proceedings  of  certain  officers  of  the  Emperor 
of  China  against  certain  of  our  officers  and  subjects 
shall  be  demanded  of  the  Chinese  Government," 
still,  when  the  broad  issue  at  stake  is  considered, 
which  was  the  attempt  by  the  Emperor  to  root  out 


DAWN  ON  THE  HILLS  OF  T'ANG 


a  vice  fatal  to  his  people,  one  can  hardly  escape  the 
conviction  that  the  war  was  at  once  "  unjusf  and 
"  immoral/'  Whatever  may  be  the  reader's  opinion, 
the  Chinese  have  always  looked  upon  it  as  a  stigma 
upon  the  British  name  and  a  valid  objection  against 
Christianity. 

The  second  article  of  the  treaty  granted  the  right 
of  residence  in  Canton,  Amoy,  Fu-chow,  Ningpo, 
and  Shanghai — a  right  eagerly  embraced  by  waiting 
missionary  boards — and  Hongkong  became  British 
territory.  Two  years  later  France  and  America  con- 
cluded treaties  with  China,  which  included  the  right 
to  erect  houses  of  worship  in  the  ports.  The  French 
treaty  led  the  way  in  procuring  the  revocation  of  the 
persecuting  edicts  of  1724  and  later,  and  the  issue  of 
a  decree  of  toleration.  These  provisions  were  partly 
a  dead  letter,  however,  until  1860.  Dr.  Williams  says 
of  the  outcome  of  this  war  which  opened  up  part  of 
China  to  the  world:  "  Looked  at  in  any  point  of  view, 
political,  commercial,  moral,  or  intellectual,  it  will  al- 
ways be  considered  as  one  of  the  turning-points  in 
the  history  of  mankind,  involving  the  welfare  of  all 
nations  in  its  wide-reaching  consequences." 

2.  Though  missionaries  could  now  enter  strategic 
cities,  it  was  reserved  for  a  native  rebellion  to  adver- 
tise in  a  general,  though  unfortunate  way,  the  lead- 
ing features  of  Christianity.  The  leader  of  this  T'ai 
P^ing — Great  Peace — Rehellion  was  a  student  named 
Hung  Hsiu-chHian,  who  had  met  Liang,  one  of 
Milne's  converts,  and  read  several  tracts  composed 
by  that  venerable  Chinese  Christian.  These  books, 
sickness  and  a  series  of  cataleptic  visions,  and  some 
instruction  from  missionaries,  notably  an  American, 
I.  J.  Koberts,  finally  resulted  in  Hung's  beginning  a 
quiet  movement  of  instruction  and  religious  reform. 
So  large  a  following  soon  gathered  about  him  that 
ambition  was  aroused  and  he  headed  a  rebellion 
which  rapidly  spread  until  it  had  reached  from  the 
South  to  within  little  more  than  one  hundred  miles  of 
Peking.     Some  of  China's  fairest  provinces  were  laid 


THE  PROTESTANT  OCCUPATION  OF  CHINA  99 


waste,  for  nearly  fifteen  years  the  evils  of  internal 
strife  scourged  the  Empire,  and  fully  20,000,000  of 
Chinese  perished.  It  was  finally  crushed  out  in  1865 
by  the  Imperialists,  aided  most  powerfully  by  *'  Chi- 
nese Gordon  "  and  his  Ever  Victorious  Army,  which 
owed  its  origin  and  early  strength  to  an  American 
named  Ward. 

This  rebellion  will  appear  most  significant  when  it 
is  remembered  that  it  was  a  movement  managed  by 
Chinese,  the  leaders  of  whom  were  the  student. 
Hung,  and  two  of  his  converts  who  were  school- 
teachers. Its  progress  from  1844  to  1851 — when  it 
became  a  rebellion — was  promising  for  Christianity. 
Hung  established  communities  called  Churches  of 
God.  "A  strictly  moral  conduct  and  the  keeping 
of  the  Sabbath  were  enjoined  on  the  congregations ; 
all  idolatrous  practises  and  the  use  of  opium  were  for- 
bidden ;  proffers  of  union  from  leaders  of  the  Great 
Triad  Society,  pledged  to  the  restoration  of  a  native 
Chinese  dynasty,  were  rejected."  As  the  movement 
which  Hung  and  his  followers,  later  called  T'ien  Kuo 
— Kingdom  of  Heaven — developed,  however,  its 
leader  became  emboldened,  and  gave  forth  revelations 
and  decrees  as  from  '^  the  Heavenly  Father  ^^  and 
^'the  Heavenly  Elder  Brother.  ^^  Gradually  the  proc- 
lamation of  salvation  by  repentance  and  faith  in 
Jesus,  which  had  given  his  preaching  such  power  at 
the  first,  was  abandoned,  and  worldly  ambition  and 
blasphemy  greatly  increased.  Were  it  not  for  this 
fact,  the  early  religious  organization  of  his  army  and 
kingdom  would  have  done  credit  to  Cromwell.  While 
the  T'^ai  P'^ings  are  execrated  for  their  deeds  of 
blood,  they  carried  throughout  the  eastern  provinces 
Christian  phrases  and  some  corrupted  Christian 
ideas.  The  rebellion  had  shown  that  a  Christian 
basis  could  underlie  a  great  movement,  and  it  had 
brought  China's  future  great  statesman,  Li  Hung- 
chang,  into  vital  touch  with  the  saintly  Major  Gor- 
don, whose  influence  upon  him  and  other  high  offi- 
cials has  never  been  forgotten. 


loo  DAWN  ON  THE  HILLS   OF  T'ANG 

3.  The  second  war  with  Great  Britain  occurred 
during  the  T^ai  P'ing  Rebellion,  and  was  known  as 
the  '^ Arrow  War"  because  a  lorcha  bearing  that 
name  and  flying  the  British  flag — apparently  unlaw- 
fully— had  been  seized  by  the  Chinese  and  the  flag 
hauled  down.  This  conflict,  which  began  in  1857, 
when  Canton  was  captured,  was  not  finally  concluded 
until  in  1860  war  was  carried  to  the  very  gates  of 
Peking.  The  treaties,  which  were  then  made  with 
England,  Eussia,  France,  and  the  United  States, 
permitted  residence  and  trade  in  six  additional  cities 
in  China  and  one  in  Sheng-ching.  ''It  conceded 
the  right  to  travel  with  passports  throughout  the 
eighteen  provinces,  and  contained  also  a  special 
clause  giving  protection  to  foreigners  and  natives  in 
the  propagation  and  adoption  of  the  Christian  relig- 
ion. .  .  .  The  moral  effect  of  this  war  was 
very  great.  The  superiority  of  Western  nations,  at 
least  in  this  one  art,  could  no  longer  be  questioned, 
and  a  much  more  favorable  impression  was  made  by 
the  moderation,  magnanimity,  and  clemency  of  the 
victors  than  by  their  military  power/'  Previous  to 
this  time,  William  Burns  was  the  only  one  who  syste- 
matically disregarded  the  limitation  of  evangelization 
to  the  five  ports ;  henceforth  every  missionary  was 
free  to  roam  at  will  throughout  the  land. 

Missionary  work  could  not  be  permanent  if  it 
could  only  be  carried  on  through  itineration,  and  ex- 
cept in  the  ports  and  at  Peking  this  was  all  that  the 
treaties  allowed.  The  additional  right  of  residence 
was  gained  through  the  French  treaty,  which,  in 
Article  VI.  of  the  Chinese  text,  though  not  in  the 
French  original,  which  was  the  final  authority,  con- 
tained this  provision  :  ^'  It  is,  in  addition,  permitted 
to  French  missionaries  to  rent  and  purchase  land  in 
all  the  provinces,  and  to  erect  buildings  thereon  at 
pleasure."  Strange  to  say,  the  Chinese  have  never 
made  serious  objection  to  this  most  questionable 
piece  of  diplomacy,  probably  because  the  clause  was 
m  their  own  version  of  the  treaty,  and  so  was  ac- 


THE  PROTESTANT  OCCUPATION  OF  CHINA  101 

cepted  consciously  by  them.  The  advantage  coming 
to  French  Catholic  missionaries  accrued  as  well  to  Prot- 
estant missionaries  of  other  treaty-making  Powers, 
because  of  the  clause  extending  to  all  Powers  the  ad- 
vantages granted  to  the  most  favored  nation  ;  hence 
every  missionary  legally  possesses  the  right  to  secure 
residences  and  erect  mission  buildings  where  de- 
sired. 

A  neio  obstacle  to  missions  soon  arose  from  the  fact 
that  it  was  understood  that  missionaries  should  first 
secure  the  consent  of  the  officials  before  purchasing 
property,  and  that  often  caused  delay  or  failure. 
Though  the  French  minister  in  1865  obtained  a  con- 
vention making  this  permission  unnecessary,  it  was 
not  until  the  French  and  United  States  ministers  re- 
vived the  clause  thirty  years  later  that  it  became 
practically  operative. 

4.  Wars  and  rumors  of  war  have  effected  other 
helpful  features  in  mission  work.  Thus  the  mas- 
sacre at  Tientsin  of  twenty  French  and  Eussian  sub- 
jects in  1870,  largely  as  the  result  of  fancied  abuses 
in  the  orphanage  of  the  Sisters  of  Charity,  led  to  a 
concentration  of  the  naval  forces  of  the  Powers  in 
the  North.  War  was  finally  averted,  but  it  gave  rise 
to  the  first  Chinese  state  paper  discussing  the  diffi- 
culties connected  with  Christian  missions,  and  some 
of  the  evils  of  Catholic  mission  policy  were  con- 
demned, with  the  result  that  the  missionaries  of  that 
confession  have  partly  given  up  their  questionable 
practices.  A  further  result  of  this  threatened  war 
was  the  use  of  unexpended  military  appropriations 
in  establishing  the  Chinese  Educational  Commission, 
under  the  leadership  of  a  Chinese  graduate  of  Yale, 
Yung  Wing.  Though  the  young  men  sent  to  America 
for  education  were  recalled  before  they  were  fully 
prepared  for  national  service,  many  bright  students, 
some  of  whom  are  in  influential  positions  in  China 
to-day,  have  personal  acquaintance  with  Christian 
institutions,  and  a  few  of  them  are  earnest  Chris- 
tians. 


102  DAWN  ON  THE  HILLS  OF  T'ANG 

The  threatening  attitude  of  Great  Britain  becanse 
of  the  murder  of  Mar  gar  y  in  1875  caused  the  oJSicials 
to  realize  the  sacredness  of  the  individual  life,  and 
most  of  them  are  anxious,  as  never  before  that  event, 
to  protect  the  missionaries  from  all  violence. 

The  French  war  of  1883-85  in  Tong-king  and 
southern  China  did  more  than  any  other  thing  to 
cause  the  Chinese  to  distinguish  between  the  Catho- 
lic missionaries  and  the  Protestants,  a  distinction  of 
great  importance  to  Protestantism. 

Riots — more  than  a  score  of  which  have  occurred 
in  recent  years,  attended  by  the  death  of  a  few  mis- 
sionaries— have  so  aroused  foreign  powers,  that  in- 
creasing vigilance  is  exercised  in  the  official  protec- 
tion of  foreigners.  Germany^s  vigorous  action  in 
1897  because  of  the  murder  of  German  Catholic 
missionaries,  and  especially  her  seizure  of  Kiao-chou, 
only  increases  this  solicitude  for  the  missionary's 
safety.     (For  the  Boxer  Uprising,  see  Chapter  VIII.) 

Missionary  Progress  to  1898.— While  Chinese 
missionaries  have  never  vitally  depended  upon  the 
mailed  hand  of  war  to  lead  them  into  fields  of  useful- 
ness, their  opportunities  and  efficiency  have,  never- 
theless, very  largely  expanded  with  the  power  and 
influence  of  the  secular  arm.  Hence  epochs  of  mis- 
sionary progress  correspond  partially  with  the  events 
just  outlined. 

1.  The  first  stage  was  preparatory  in  character, 
and  extended  from  Morrison's  arrival  in  1807  to  the 
Treaty  of  Nanking  in  1843. 

Preparatory  efforts  tvithin  the  Empire  were  these  : 
The  publication  of  a  dictionary  and  grammar ;  the 
translation  of  the  entire  Bible,  published  in  1818 ; 
the  composition  of  several  valuable  tracts,  notable 
among  which  is  the  very  popular  and  useful  one  by 
Milne,  entitled  ''The  Two  Friends "' ;  the  opening  of 
China  to  medical  missions  by  Dr.  Peter  Parker,  who 
was  her  first  great  medical  missionary  ;  the  establish- 
ment of  the  American  Board's  Mission  Press  by  S. 
Wells  Williams ;  and  the  founding  of  the  Chinese 


THE  PROTESTANT  OCCUPATION  OF  CHINA  I03 

Repository,  which  to  the  present  time,  though  under 
a  different  name,  has  done  so  much  to  acquaint  the 
Christian  world  with  China. 

Most  of  the  workers  during  this  period  labored 
outside  China  Proper,  in  the  Malay  Peninsula  and  on. 
adjacent  islands,  where  Chinese  colonists  were  found 
in  great  numbers,  and  where  access  to  them  was  pos- 
sible. Preaching,  tract  and  Scripture  distribution, 
the  preparation  of  books  and  periodicals  in  English 
and  Chinese,  and  education,  of  a  primary  character 
mostly,  though  the  Anglo-Chinese  College,  founded 
at  Malacca  in  1818,  did  excellent  work,  were  the 
lines  followed.  Giitzlaff  and  Medhurst  were  espe- 
cially zealous  in  their  efforts  to  distribute  books  and 
preach  along  the  coast.  The  former  reached  Tien- 
tsin even,  while  Medhurst  went  as  far  as  Shan-tung. 
Williams  desired  to  enter  Japan  through  some  ship- 
wrecked Japanese.  Though  this  was  not  possible, 
some  of  them  were  converted,  and  he  prepared  in 
their  tongue  a  translation  of  Genesis  and  Matthew. 

By  1842  these  results  were  evident :  Three  British 
societies  and  four  American  organizations  had  some 
twenty  representatives  in  the  Empire  and  in  the 
Chinese  colonies  adjacent.  Macao,  Canton,  Hong- 
kong and  Amoy  had  had  for  a  longer  or  shorter  time 
resident  missionaries,  and  six  converts  constituted 
the  entire  Protestant  Chinese  church. 

2.  From  1842  to  1860  constitutes  the  years  of  en- 
trance, though  very  little  could  yet  be  done  outside 
the  treaty  ports. 

The  field  of  labor  included  the  populous  cities  of 
Canton,  Amoy,  Fu-chou,  Ningpo,  and  Shanghai. 
While  the  vices  of  the  West  came  in  with  commerce, 
these  cities  were  entrepots  of  extensive  districts,  and 
hence  were  strategic.  Hongkong,  being  under  Brit- 
ish control,  was  also  a  very  important  centre  of  mis- 
sionary effort  at  this  time. 

The  nature  of  the  work  was  now  somewhat  broader. 
Revised  translations  of  the  Bible,  and  new  and  bet- 
ter Christian  literature  were  steps  forward.     Though 


I04  DAWN  ON  THE  HILLS  OF  T'ANG 

evangelization  was  nominally  permitted,  it  was  a 
difficult  process.  One  of  the  missionaries.  Dr.  Ash- 
more,  says  of  it :  "  We  were  mobbed  in  the  fu  city, 
mobbed  in  the  district  cities,  mobbed  in  the  large 
towns.  We  got  so  used  to  being  pelted  with  mud 
and  gravel  and  bits  of  broken  pottery  that  things 
seemed  strange  if  we  escaped  the  regular  dose. 
.  i  .  We  went  out  from  our  homes  bedewed  with 
the  tears  and  benedictions  of  dear  ones,  and  we 
came  back  plastered  over,  metaphorically  speaking, 
with  curses  and  objurgations  from  top  to  bottom. 
.  .  .  It  went  badly  with  our  chapels  that  we 
rented.  They  were  often  assailed  ;  roofs  were  broken 
up,  doors  were  battered  in,  and  furniture  was  carried 
off.  There  was  nothing  else  to  do  but  to  keep  at  it. 
Driven  out  of  one  place,  we  betook  ourselves  to  an- 
other, according  to  instructions.  But  we  did  not 
leave  the  country  as  the  literati  desired,  and  we  did 
not  intend  to.  We  wore  them  out,  as  an  anvil  some- 
times wears  out  a  hammer." 

Converts  of  such  troublous  times  were  naturally 
men  of  strong  convictions,  and  though  usually  igno- 
rant, they  bravely  endured  the  anathemas  and  petty 
persecutions  of  neighbors  and  nearest  friends.  Iso- 
lated and  ostracized,  they  clung  with  tenacious  grip 
to  the  truth,  and  the  grace  of  God  did  not  fail  them. 

The  missionaries  were  for  the  same  reason  men 
and  women  of  great  strength  of  character,  and  were 
perforce  of  the  heroic  mould.  During  these  years 
Protestantism's  fiercest  battles  over  the  "  Term 
Question  "  were  waged.  In  lieu  of  any  clear  concep- 
tion and  name  for  God  among  the  Chinese,  the  mis- 
sionaries, like  the  Romanists  of  early  days,  strenu- 
ously advocated  the  use  of  whichever  of  the  terms, 
Shang  Ti,  T4en  Chu,  Sh^n,  etc.,  seemed  to  them 
least  open  to  objection  and  most  honoring  to  Je- 
hovah. Though  this  controversy  practically  died 
away  soon  after,  it  was  long  a  dangerous  topic  to  in- 
troduce in  a  missionary  gathering. 

Tangible  results  were  not  numerous.     Though  the 


OLDEST  CHURCH   BUILDING  FOR  NATIVE  CHRISTIANS   IN    CHINA 


PASTOR    OF    ABOVE    CHURCH    AND    HIS    WIFE 


THE  PROTESTANT  OCCUPATION  OF  CHINA  105 

word  of  truth  had  sounded  forth  from  the  missionary 
centres  into  the  four  populous  littoral  provinces  of 
Kuang-tung,  Fu-chien,  Ch^-chiang,  and  Chiang-su, 
and  though  the  boards  had  increased  from  seven  to 
nineteen,  with  some  160  missionaries,  each  of  them 
could  on  an  average  point  to  only  six  converts  as  the 
reward  of  his  self-denying  toil.  Judged  by  other 
than  statistical  standards,  these  years  were  very  fruit- 
ful in  many  directions. 

3.  Seventeen  years  intervened  between  1860  and 
the  first  great  missionary  conference  of  China,  which 
met  at  Shanghai  in  1877.  They  were  years  of  devel- 
opment andioider  entrance  into  new  fields.  Carstairs 
Douglas  could  report  at  the  conference  that  Ohih-li, 
Shan-tung,  An-hui,  Chiang-hsi,  Hu-pei,  and  Sheng- 
ching,  or  Southern  Manchuria,  had  been  occupied ; 
but  of  the  nine  provinces  still  unentered,  only  the 
merest  Protestant  beginning  had  been  made,  and  dark- 
ness still  reigned,  except  for  the  flickering  and  smok- 
ing lights  of  Catholicism. 

Some  of  the  advances  noted  are  the  wide  develop- 
ment of  educational  and  medical  work,  the  practical 
inauguration  of  woman's  work,  which  had  only  been 
begun  in  the  previous  period,  the  establishment  of 
several  strong  churches  in  place  of  the  isolation  of 
believers  in  the  earlier  days,  and  above  all  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  China  Inland  Mission  in  1865.  Its 
emphasis  of  inland  occupation  and  new  fields  was  of 
the  utmost  importance  to  the  Empire,  though  natu- 
rally pioneering  and  evangelistic  work  are  not  statis- 
tically so  successful  as  older  and  more  diversified 
labors. 

Some  of  the  statistics  of  the  1877  conference  are 
worth  repeating.  Missionaries  resided  at  ninety-one 
centres,  had  organized  three  hundred  and  twelve 
churches,  and  Chinese  communicants  numbered  13,- 
035.  In  all,  twenty-nine  societies — twelve  American, 
fifteen  British,  and  two  Continental — were  on  the  field, 
with  four  hundred  and  seventy-three  missionaries,  in- 
cluding seven  unconnected. 


106  DAWN  ON  THE  HILLS  OF  T'ANG 

4.  Thirteen  years  more  elapsed  before  the  mis- 
sionaries again  gathered  at  the  Second  Shanghai  Con- 
ference of  1890.  The  communion  of  missionaries  of 
different  denominations  and  sections,  and  the  free  in- 
terchange of  views  in  1877,  were  most  helpful.  Two 
key-words  of  that  gathering  were  systematic  co-opera- 
tion and  the  earnest  appeal  for  more  laborers.  In 
both  these  directions  gratifying  progress  was  made. 

Ttvo  additional  features  of  the  period  should  like- 
wise be  mentioned.  Famines,  particularly  that  of 
1877-78,  gave  foreigners  and  the  missionaries,  both 
Catholic  and  Protestant,  who  were  their  almoners,  an 
opportunity  to  show  their  love  to  those  who  had  hith- 
erto been  their  enemies.  In  the  years  1877-78  it  is 
estimated  that  from  '^nine  and  a  half  to  thirteen 
millions^'  perished,  mainly  in  the  three  northern 
provinces  of  Shan-tung,  Shan-hsi,  and  Shen-hsi.  For- 
eigners contributed  nearly  half  a  million  dollars 
toward  their  relief,  and  of  those  personally  engaged 
in  distributing  aid  four  died  from  exposure  and 
overwork.  Naturally  distrust  and  opposition  gave 
way  before  the  good-will,  affection,  and  gratitude 
evoked  by  this  charitable  beneficence.  But  while 
doors  were  thus  opened  and  many  were  won  thereby, 
it  gave  to  the  Church  some  who  entered  it  for  mo- 
tives of  gratitude  or  cupidity,  and  hence  gave  rise  to 
a  form  of  the  old ''  rice  Christian  "  problem.  Primarily 
for  this  reason,  but  largely  as  a  result  of  the  enlarge- 
ment of  the  native  church,  the  question  of  self-sup- 
port came  to  the  front  during  this  period. 

The  1890  statistics  revealed  these  facts  among 
many  others  :  The  twenty-nine  societies  of  1877  had 
become  forty-two,  and  the  missionaries  numbered 
1,296,  an  increase  of  nearly  three-fold.  A  striking 
advance  in  the  number  of  women  missionaries  was 
noted.  *'  In  1877  they  formed  little  over  one-eighth 
of  the  whole  force  ;  in  1890  they  were  nearly  one- 
fourth  the  entire  number,  showing  the  rapid  devel- 
opment in  the  work  of  women  for  women.  ^'  Native 
communicants  numbered  37,287,  an  increase  of  about 


r  < 


u 


<U-' 


THE  PROTESTANT  OCCUPATION  OF  CHINA 


107 


one  hundred  per  cent,  for  each  four  years  since  1877. 
Among  the  natives  522  organized  churches  existed, 
and  1,657  Chinese  were  engaged  in  Christian  work. 
Education  was  fitting  for  Christian  usefulness  16,836 
Chinese  children  and  youths. 

5.  The  eight  years  following  the  last  conference 
were  largely  lived  in  the  inspiration  and  strength 
arising  from  that  gathering.  The  Union  Bible  in 
three  different  literary  styles,  which  was  decided  on 
then,  '^  after  forty  years  of  separation,"  and  which 
caused  the  delegates  to  rise  and  sing  the  Doxology 
when  the  report  was  presented,  proceeded  rapidly,  as 
did  the  work  of  the  Committee  to  prepare  an  anno- 
tated Bible.  The  four  appeals  issued  by  that  body 
came  like  a  bugle-call  to  all  Christendom,  and  met 
with  a  fair  response.  Though  their  request  for  1,000 
men  within  five  years  was  not  quite  responded  to, 
in  that  only  481  of  the  1,153  missionaries  who  entered 
the  Empire  during  that  period  were  males,  God  saw 
what  was  needed,  and  the  appeal  of  the  women  was 
more  than  met,  672  having  reached  China.  The 
fuller  discussion  of  methods  by  persons  from  so  many 
centres  gave  rise  to  much  more  thoughtful  work,  and 
the  deepening  of  the  spiritual  life  had  never  before 
received  such  emphasis  as  within  those  eight  years. 

Other  characteristics  of  this  period  are  these  :  The 
missionary  entrance  into  Hu-nan,  the  last  and  most 
hostile  province  of  the  Empire  ;  the  various  attempts 
to  snuff  out  by  mob  violence  Chinese  missions ;  the 
sifting  of  the  Church  by  the  fires  of  a  persecution 
which  led  to  the  death  of  not  a  few  missionaries,  but 
which  also  wonderfully  enlarged  its  membership  ;  the 
necessity  laid  upon  congregations  unwilling  to  do 
their  duty  in  the  matter  of  self-support,  because  of 
the  financial  depression  in  the  home  lands,  thus  lead- 
ing to  greater  independence  ;  the  possession  of  the 
field  by  two  organizations  that  had  previously  only 
been  initiated,  viz.,  the  Young  People's  Societies  and 
the  National  organization  of  the  Young  Men's  Chris- 
tian Association  among  students;  the  Chinese  En- 


I08  DAWN  ON  THE  HILLS  OP  T'ANG 

deavor  Conventions,  and  four  conferences  held  by 
Mr.  J.  R.  Mott  and  others  in  the  fall  of  1896,  attended 
by  2,883  delegates,  among  whom  were  999  Chinese 
students  ;  the  presentation  to  the  Empress  Dowager 
in  1894  by  the  Christian  women  of  China  of  a  mag- 
nificent copy  of  the  New  Testament,  one  of  the  most 
costly  single  volumes  ever  printed  ;  the  consequent 
purchase  by  the  Emperor  of  copies  of  the  Scripture 
and  many  other  religious  and  scientific  books ;  the 
presentation  to  the  Emperor  in  November,  1895,  of 
a  Protestant  Memorial,  in  connection  with  which  a 
full  discussion  of  Protestant  missionaries'  aims  and 
methods  was  had  with  the  Tsung-li  Ya-men  ;  and 
the  use  of  the  Bible  in  one  case  as  the  basis  of  a  ques- 
tion asked  in  one  of  the  government  examinations. 
Such  events  were  a  clear  foreshadowing  of  that  period 
prophesied  by  Dr.  Martin,  ^'^when  the  Church  of 
Christ  shall  be  favored  by  the  Imperial  power  as  the 
best,  if  not  the  only  hope  of  national  regeneration.'' 
(For  the  last  stage  of  missionary  progress  in  China, 
namely,  from  1898  to  the  present  time,  see  the  clos- 
ing chapter  of  this  volume.) 


vn 

THE  MISSIONAKIES  AT  WOEK 

MissiONAKiES  soon  find  the  need  of  versatility, 
since  one  must  be  all  things  to  all  men  as  occasion 
requires.  Even  sex  distinctions  are  often  overlooked, 
and  the  woman  preaches  to  men  as  well  as  to  her  sis- 
ters. In  general,  however,  women  devote  themselves 
to  educational  work  and  evangelism  of  the  house-to- 
house  and  less  public  sort,  while  a  small  proportion  of 
them  are  physicians  or  devote  themselves  to  the  prep- 
aration of  literature.  In  the  brief  summary  follow- 
ing, it  is  understood  that  women  adapt  the  methods 
mentioned  to  their  special  constituency,  rather  than 
adopt  entirely  different  methods. 

The  Human  Agent  in  Missions. — As  much 
depends  upon  him,  humanly  speaking,  it  is  manifest 
that  self-culture  must  occupy  much  of  his  time. 

1.  The  possibilities  of  error  in  a  monosyllabic  lan- 
guage, with  its  important  tonal  distinctions,  are  so 
great  and  vital  that  missionaries  in  no  other  country 
need  to  be  so  conscientious  and  thorough  as  those  in 
China  in  their  language  study.  One  can  readily  pre- 
pare himself  to  be  misunderstood  in  a  few  months ; 
few,  except  physicians,  can  so  far  master  Chinese  as 
to  do  satisfactory  work  in  less  than  a  year  or  a  year 
and  a  half,  and  none  will  be  so  foolish  as  to  ever 
cease  delving  at  the  language. 

2.  Meanwhile  the  missionary  can  be  useful  in 
other  ways»  If  stationed  with  colleagues,  he  can  re- 
lieve them  of  many  secular  details,  such  as  the  care 
of  the  premises,  the  station  treasurership  in  some 
cases,  and  after  a  few  months  he  can  have  general 
charge  of  the  station  book-room.     He  can  also  be 

109 


DAWN  ON  THE  HILLS  OF  T'ANG 


useful  in  drawing  a  crowd  for  native  preachers,  if 
he  sings  or  is  willing  to  be  a  ^'  sign-board/'  which 
in  new  regions  is  tantamount  to  being  a  menagerie 
for  the  curious,  gaping  crowd.  But  he  can  be  some- 
thing more  ;  for  with  the  help  of  one^s  teacher  a  brief 
sermonette  can  be  prepared  and  memorized,  and  this 
may  be  repeated  indefinitely  and  added  to  from  day 
to  day. 

3.  A  still  more  vital  matter  is  preparation  of  hearty 
which  is  of  the  utmost  importance  in  a  spiritual  work 
of  such  difficulty.  The  hours  spent  in  Bible  study, 
meditation,  and  prayer  will  be  found  a  most  profitable 
investment.  Daily  conduct  must  be  watched  with 
the  utmost  care,  since  the  Chinese  have  been  trained 
to  imitate  their  teachers,  and  native  Christians  follow 
the  national  habit. 

4.  During  these  early  months  the  missionary  will 
devote  as  much  time  to  the  study  of  the  people  as  to 
the  language,  perhaps.  Books  will  aid  in  this,  but  a 
loquacious  teacher  or  trusted  Christian,  and  constant 
observation  and  inquiry,  will  do  more  still. 

Efforts  for  China's  Physical  Alleviation. — 
1.  Medicine  has  been  the  wedge  used  to  open 
doors  of  hundreds  of  unfriendly  homes.  From  the 
first  moment  of  his  arrival,  tho  physician  is  most 
useful,  and  though  the  natives  may  not  realize  the 
priceless  worth  of  the  gospel  message,  release  from 
pain,  and  from  many  diseases  which  Chinese  prac- 
titioners cannot  heal,  is  appreciated  most  gratefully. 
An  iron  will  is  needed  to  make  physicians  take  time 
to  learn  anything  more  than  the  vocabulary  required 
by  professional  demands ;  for  this  reason  and  because 
of  heavy  clinics,  doctors  are  always  tempted  to  leave 
to  others  the  ministration  to  soul-needs. 

While  dispensaries  are  far  more  common  than  hos- 
pitals, the  latter  are  apt  to  yield  more  encouraging 
spiritual  results.  Leisure  to  learn  through  oral  in- 
struction the  gist  of  the  gospel  is  there  afforded,  and 
hundreds  have  also  embraced  the  opportunity  to  learn 
to  read,  through  the  medium  of   Christian  tracts. 


.^:-^.if^' 


i^ 


^..^'^^i 


GENERAL  HOSPITAL,  CHUNG-CH  ING 


V 


"mm. 


HOPE    HOSPITAL,    AMOY 


THE  MISSIONARIES  AT  WORK  HI 

which  are  carried  later  to  their  homes  as  a  silent 
leaven. 

The  Chinese  have  a  proverb  that  a  woman  cannot 
avoid  the  doctor  and  her  husband  ;  yet  in  spite  of 
this  unwilling  consent,  women  physicians  are  gladly 
welcomed  by  Chinese  women  for  themselves  and 
children.  Very  many  invitations  to  visit  homes  come 
from  this  source. 

2.  Famine  relief,  as  we  have  seen,  is  a  conciliating 
agency  of  great  value.  Seldom  are  missionaries  called 
upon  to  distribute  aid  in  the  afflicted  districts,  but 
frequently  refugees  from  local  famines  come  to  the 
mission  compound.  This  is  a  favorable  opportunity 
for  gaining  friends,  but  it  involves  one  in  many  per- 
plexities arising  from  their  willingness  to  continue  in 
dependence  upon  the  foreigner,  and  *^rice  Chris- 
tians "  are  apt  to  be  the  fruitage  of  such  efforts. 

3.  Reforms  of  a  thousand  kinds  await  the  Church 
of  the  future  in  China  ;  but  seductive  as  is  their  ap- 
peal to  the  missionary,  only  two  thus  far  have  re- 
ceived mach  attention.  The  opium  curse,  which  so 
threatens  China's  life,  fills  the  great  cities  with 
thin-faced,  wretchedly  ragged  victims.  Naturally 
opium  refuges  have  been  extensively  opened,  in  spite 
of  the  fact  that  so  few,  who  are  enabled  to  give  up 
the  drug,  persist  in  their  determination  after  leaving 
the  refuge. 

Far  more  hopeful  is  the  attempt  to  induce  women 
of  the  Church  to  abandon  the  cruel  custom  of  foot- 
hinding.  While  comparatively  few  of  them  have 
been  willing  to  unbind  their  own  feet  and  thus  un- 
dergo once  more  an  agony  little  less  severe  than  that 
of  their  childhood,  very  many  have  unbound  those  of 
their  daughters.  Persistent  agitation  has  led  to  the 
formation  of  native  anti -foot-binding  societies,  and 
officials  and  Chinese  Christian  scholars  have  written 
some  literature  upon  its  evils. 

4.  Defectives  have  scarcely  been  touched  thus  far 
by  Protestant  missionaries.  Mr.  Murray  in  Peking 
has  elaborated  a  system  for  teaching  the  blind  to  read. 


112  DAWN  ON  THE  HILLS  OF  T'ANG 

and  the  extreme  ease  of  learning  the  art  has  caused 
it  to  be  adapted  for  sight  readers.  He  has,  also,  a 
sort  of  blind  asylum  there,  and  a  few  other  schools 
have  been  opened  in  other  parts  of  China.  A  very- 
small  beginning  has  been  made  in  Shan-tung  in  the 
direction  of  instructing  deaf  mutes,  but  they  are  so 
few  compared  with  the  many  blind  that  little  em- 
phasis is  laid  upon  this  effort.  Thus  far  only  a  single 
insane  asylum  has  been  attempted,  though  it  has 
been  strongly  agitated  by  the  missionaries  in  the 
South. 

An  excellent  foundling  asylum  is  conducted  at 
Hongkong  by  the  Berlin  ladies,  and  other  less  exten- 
sive ones  are  found  here  and  there  among  the  other 
missions. 

Educational  Work. — While  evangelistic  work 
almost  always  precedes  any  other  variety  of  effort, 
and  though  it  always  has  the  pre-eminence,  educa- 
tion in  one  form  or  another  soon  becomes  a  strategic 
necessity  which  most  boards  recognize. 

1.  Day-schools,  usually  for  pupils  of  one  sex — 
though  sometimes  mixed  schools  are  opened  for  very 
young  children — are  the  commonest  sort  of  educa- 
tional institutions.  Boys  and  girls,  mainly  from  poor 
Christian  families,  whose  parents  could  not  afford  to 
have  them  go  to  an  ordinary  school,  make  very  rapid 
progress  in  their  studies,  thanks  to  a  rational  system 
of  instruction  and  to  heredity.  Reading,  writing, 
and  a  beginning  in  Western  learning  are  imparted, 
but  the  staple  of  instruction  is  the  Bible.  Hundreds 
of  pupils  in  day-schools  memorize  the  gospels,  and 
many  the  entire  New  Testament.  Better  still,  they 
are  taught  to  look  upon  it  as  a  divine  seed,  and  in 
many  a  child's  heart  it  has  germinated  and  brought 
forth  fruit  in  heathen  court-yards. 

In  some  of  these  schools  the  pupils  need  to  be  in- 
duced to  come  by  the  gift  of  a  few  cash,  picture- 
cards,  etc.,  but  in  older  communities  Christians  so 
much  appreciate  them,  that  their  partial  or  entire 
support  is  often  obtained.     Native  teachers,  many  of 


THE  MISSIONARIES  AT  WORK  II3 

them  trained  in  mission  schools  of  a  higher  ffrade, 
are  usually  in  charge,  though  foreign  supervision  is 
always  helpful. 

2.  Boarding-schools  are  attended  by  a  compara- 
tively few  picked  students ;  but  the  close  contact 
with  the  missionaries,  and  with  a  community  of 
Christians  isolated  from  the  heathen  mass,  has  been 
an  inestimable  benefit  to  the  leaders  of  the  Church, 
who  would  otherwise  have  had  no  definite  conception 
of  what  Christianity  can  effect  in  associated  life. 
This  advantage  more  than  offsets  the  objection  that 
a  hot-house  atmosphere,  which  unfits  them  for  sterner 
experiences  of  service,  is  the  penalty  of  such  schools. 
These  institutions  are  especially  valuable  for  the 
young  women,  the  future  wives  and  mothers  of  the 
Christian  community,  who  there  learn  lessons  in 
home-making  that  will  prove  invaluable. 

Tlie  studies  pursued  in  such  schools  are  disap- 
pointingly limited  in  range  in  the  opinion  of  the 
newly  arrived  foreigner ;  yet  in  many  cases  they  are 
such  as  are  best  adapted  to  the  peculiar  needs  of  the 
Chinese.  Ancient  and  modern  languages — except 
English  along  the  coast  and  in  the  cities — are  not 
worth  learning,  as  dense  ignorance  on  more  vital 
topics  exists,  and  the  study  of  their  own  Classics  is 
indispensable  as  an  element  of  Chinese  culture,  and 
as  a  mental  discipline  is  almost  as  valuable  as  Greek 
and  Latin  to  the  student  of  the  West. 

3.  Comparatively  few  genuine  colleges  exist.  Yet 
the  pressing  need  of  the  near  future  is  that  of  a  body 
of  well-trained  natives  who  can  enter  the  vast  fields 
opening  to  the  civil  engineer,  the  mining  expert,  the 
electrician,  and  the  topographical  engineer.  Astron- 
omy and  mathematics,  which  have  previously  been 
desired,  must  also  be  taught.  It  can  be  said  with 
perfect  truth  that  thus  far  the  missionaries  have  been 
China's  best,  and  almost  only,  instructors,  and  in 
the  higher  institutions  students  are  being  trained 
who  receive  a  moral  education  second  to  that  im- 
parted in  no  Western  college,  and  a  mental  develop- 


114 


DAIVN  ON  THE  HILLS   OF  T'ANG 


ment  that  compares  favorably  with  that  of  our  stu- 
dents. 

The  Chinese  are  settling  for  themselves  the  mooted 
question  of  English  study.  The  new  demand  for  a 
knowledge  of  our  language  has  drawn  to  mission  col- 
leges young  men  of  a  higher  social  standing  than 
have  ordinarily  been  reached,  and  they  have  gladly 
paid  the  required  fees.  As  a  mere  matter  of  acquir- 
ing knowledge,  more  accurate  information  could  be 
gained  through  Chinese,  and  in  a  far  less  time  than 
is  necessary  when  English  is  the  medium  of  instruc- 
tion. But  the  question  of  keeping  up  with  the 
progress  in  the  sciences  is  a  most  serious  one,  if 
Chinese  text-books  and  periodicals  are  the  sole  de- 
pendences. Moreover,  English  is  the  only  possibil- 
ity of  communicating  with  most  Western  merchants 
and  promoters  of  various  sorts,  and  as  pidgin  English 
is  wofuUy  meagre,  a  full-fledged  variety  is  a  neces- 
sity. Thus  far  the  chief  difficulty  connected  with 
its  study  has  been  the  fact  that  English-speaking 
compradores,  etc.,  are  in  such  demand  that  students 
are  drafted  off  as  soon  as  they  get  a  fair  command  of 
the  tongue,  and  often  fall  before  the  temptation  to 
"squeeze"  the  foreigner.  With  few  honorable  ex- 
ceptions, such  men  are  of  little  use  to  the  native 
church  thereafter. 

Another  charge  until  recently  urged  against  English 
and  Western  education  in  general  is  that  so  much 
time  is  required  for  such  studies  that  the  student 
cannot  acquire  his  own  classical  language,  thus  fail- 
ing to  have  influence  as  a  writer  over  the  power- 
ful literary  element  of  the  Empire.  Yet,  if  Western 
ideas  are  modified  enough  to  permit  the  memoriza- 
tion of  the  Classics,  in  part  at  least,  and  of  study 
aloud,  so  that  tones  can  be  corrected  by  the  teacher, 
it  is  quite  possible  for  the  student,  aided  by  modern 
ideas  of  education,  to  gain  much  knowledge  from 
the  West,  as  well  as  Chinese  culture,  in  the  same 
number  of  years  required  for  taking  the  Chinese 
degrees. 


f 


'^.  1 


€ 


VEiN    HALL^   ST.   JOHN  S   COLLEGE,    SHANGHAI 


A 


p  iiM  ti 


MAIN   BUILDING,    SU-CHO\V    UNIVERSITY 


THE  MISSIONARIES  AT  WORK 


"5 


4.  Industrial  education  has  its  advocates  in  some 
missions,  both  as  a  means  of  discipline  and  as  a  prep- 
aration for  usefulness  and  self-support  in  later  life. 
It  has  its  value,  also,  in  ennobling  the  native  concep- 
tion of  labor  and  in  living  down  the  current  convic- 
tion that  the  moment  the  scholar^s  gown  is  donned 
the  finger-nails  may  grow  and  no  manual  labor  be 
undertaken — a  curse  of  China's  present  situation. 
The  growing  demand  for  technical  schools  will  also 
aid  in  this  direction. 

5.  Education  for  Christian  service  is  an  endeavor 
that  even  those  boards  approve  of  which  do  not  en- 
courage a  general  educational  work.  Station-classes 
for  men  and  women — separate,  of  course — bring  to- 
gether for  a  few  weeks  or  months,  usually  in  the 
winter  season,  when  people  are  least  busy,  a  company 
of  interested  Christians  or  inquirers  anxious  to  be 
fitted  for  usefulness  in  their  homes.  It  is  a  rare  priv- 
ilege to  have  in  charge  such  a  class.  Some  are 
stupid,  but  all  are  eager  learners  ;  for,  as  they  often 
say,  **  This  is  heaven,^'  and  such  heavenly  privileges 
are  never  undervalued  or  misimproved.  Hundreds 
every  year  gain  information  and  inspiration  in  these 
classes  that  enable  them  to  stand  alone  in  the  midst 
of  persecution,  and  become  a  savor  of  life  unto  life 
among  unbelieving  multitudes. 

The  few  theological  schools  established  attempt  to 
do  more  thoroughly  for  chosen  young  men  of  the 
Church  what  station-classes  accomplish  for  the  uned- 
ucated many  in  more  advanced  life.  Though  For- 
mosa missions  must  now  be  considered  as  belonging 
to  Japan,  Dr.  Mackay's  class  of  theological  students 
received  there  a  training  as  nearly  ideal  as  can  be 
found  for  Chinese  helpers.  On  the  Chinese  main- 
land seminary  students  are  most  thoroughly  edu- 
cated in  all  that  pertains  to  the  work  of  evangeliza- 
tion and  the  regular  ministry,  and  in  these  institutions 
are  men  some  of  whom  have  mastered  the  contents 
and  drunk  in  the  spirit  of  the  Bible  as  no  seminary 
students  of  the  Occident  have  done. 


Il6  DAWN  ON  THE  HILLS  OF  T'ANG 

Literature  in  Chinese  Missions.-— As  no  other 
missionary  country  honors  literature  so  highly  as 
China,  so  literary  work  has  had  a  correspondingly 
large  amount  of  attention  given  it. 

1.  The  preparation  of  literature  of  every  variety. 
Bibles,  religious  treatises,  educational  works,  and 
periodicals  both  secular  and  religious,  has  fallen  al- 
most entirely  on  the  shoulders  of  missionaries,  as  did, 
in  the  earlier  days,  the  writing  of  philological  works. 
Many  have  become  authors  who  have  no  gifts  in  that 
direction,  but  it  is  probably  true  that  no  country  has 
had  so  large  a  number  of  competent  translators  and 
authors  as  China.  Bible  translators,  like  Morrison, 
Medhurst,  Bridgman,  Blodget,  Burdon,  and  Scher- 
eschewsky,  and  the  present  Committees  working  on 
revised  versions,  are  men  to  be  grateful  for,  even  if 
some  of  the  earlier  generation  aimed  at  persj)icuity 
and  elegance  of  diction,  rather  than  at  rigid  faithful- 
ness in  translating  the  sometimes  ambiguous,  and  to 
the  Chinese,  distasteful  statements  of  the  Scripture 
writers.  Milne  was  the  forerunner  of  authors  like 
Burns,  Martin,  and  Griffith  John,  who  could  so  sink 
themselves  in  the  Chinese  environment  and  ''get 
their  stomachs  so  full  '^  of  choice  and  attractive  forms 
of  expression,  that  the  Chinese  read  on  in  spite  of 
themselves,  after  once  tasting  the  "  flavor"  of  their 
writings.  Mateer,  Sheffield,  Hunter,  and  other  mis- 
sionaries have  rendered  a  hardly  less  important  ser- 
vice in  text-book  preparation  than  those  in  govern- 
ment employ,  like  Edkins,  and  Fryer  ;  while  Faber 
and  Legge  have  done  invaluable  work  in  making 
Chinese  writings  accessible  to  the  Western  reader. 
Yates,  Allen,  and  Richard  are  a  few  missionaries 
among  many  who  have  made  the  periodical  literature 
of  China  an  agency  of  illumination  and  regeneration. 

2.  The  manufacture  of  books  is  an  effort  which 
mission  presses  have  undertaken  in  spite  of  the  fact 
that  this  meant  competition  with  thousands  of  native 
presses,  the  entire  outfit  of  almost  any  one  of  which 
might  be  packed  in  a  hand-satchel.     The  experiment 


THE  MISSIONARIES  AT  WORK 


117 


of  Pi,  made  nearly  900  years  ago,  has  become  effec- 
tive in  the  elegant  movable  tyi)e  of  to-day,  and 
though  the  mission-press  compositor  may  be  bewil- 
dered at  first  as  he  stands,  like  a  man  in  a  museum, 
in  the  midst  of  the  6,000  and  more  compartments  of 
his  gigantic  type-cases,  he  can  far  outstrip  the  block- 
cutter,  both  in  speed  of  composition  and  beauty  of 
type.  Native  firms  have  adopted  the  idea  of  photo- 
engraving and  reproduce  at  a  low  price  volumes  for- 
merly inaccessible,  as  well  as  pirate  recent  missionary 
productions,  thus  underselling  the  works  of  foreign 
presses.  Though  the  production  of  mission  presses  is 
very  large,  yet  this  is  but  a  foretaste  of  the  demands 
to  be  laid  upon  them  and  upon  authors  in  the  awak- 
ening that  is  now  beginning. 

3.  Practically  every  Protestant  missionary  and  na- 
tive Christian  worker  in  China  aids  in  the  distrihu- 
Hon  of  this  literature.  Inquirers  are  taught  to  read 
through  books  ;  schools  and  training-classes  cannot 
exist  without  them  ;  and  they  are  the  best  and  almost 
only  agency  through  which  to  reach  the  gentry  and 
officials  of  the  Empire,  from  local  Nicodemuses,  to 
the  occupant  of  the  Dragon  Throne.  Missionaries 
and  colporteurs  sell  books  or  judiciously  loan  or  give 
them  away  in  chapels  and  tea-shops,  at  fairs  and  near 
the  gates  of  government  examination-halls.  Books 
are  a  legitimate  excuse  for  the  foreigner's  presence  in 
a  hostile  district,  and  the  native  Book-lending  Socie- 
ties of  the  South  gain  an  entrance  for  Christian  truth 
by  their  means  into  country  schools  and  the  homes  of 
grandees. 

Evangelistic  Work. — Highly  as  the  missionary 
esteems  efforts  for  the  bodily  and  mental  well-being 
of  men,  he  never  forgets  that  his  primary  object  is  to 
preach  the  gospel  of  an  all-powerful  Saviour,  and  a 
loving  Father  in  heaven.  This  is  the  thread  of  scarlet 
that  runs  through  the  web  of  his  royal  weaving. 

1.  Perhaps  the  most  profitable  efforts  on  the  China 
field  are  those  in  which  the  missionary  labors  with  in- 
dividuals, as  did  Jesus  at  the  Samaritan  well.     When 


Il8  DAWN  ON  THE  HILLS  OF  T'ANG 

masses  are  addressed,  one  cannot  tell  whether  the 
strange  message  is  understood  ;  but  let  one  sit  down 
and  talk  with  a  man,  as  to  a  brother,  and  not  only 
are  misunderstandings  cleared  away,  but  a  personal 
relation  of  friendliness  and  respect  is  established.  It 
is  \)!\\%  private  ivork  that  gives  one  an  opportunity 
with  men  of  the  higher  classes,  and  in  general  it  is 
so  profitable  that  Romanists  confine  themselves  almost 
entirely  to  it,  encouraging  converts  to  bring  such  in- 
quirers to  them. 

Timid  women  of  the  letter  classes  can  often  be 
reached  through  visits  at  the  missionary  lady's  home. 
It  is  a  curious,  new  world  to  the  visitor,  and  in  a  life 
with  very  few  outings  it  forms  the  staple  of  conver- 
sation in  her  home  for  months  after.  Christian  wom- 
en also  grow  much  in  their  spiritual  life  through 
personal  visits  at  the  mission  compound.  Mothers^ 
meetings  are  a  more  public  form  of  the  same  beauti- 
ful and  helpful  service.  Colored  Scripture  pictures 
are  very  useful  in  such  a  connection,  and  many  have 
been  placed  in  the  homes  of  women  otherwise  inac- 
cessible to  Christianity. 

2.  If  most  of  the  work  thus  far  described  resembles 
that  done  in  missions  at  home,  chapel  preaching  pre- 
sents some  unique  features.  These  buildings  are 
usually  rented  shops,  located  on  a  frequented  city 
street,  and  open  to  all  comers.  Though  the  place  is 
a  cheerless  one,  and  provided  with  rude,  backless  seats 
and  only  doubtful  means  of  warmth  in  the  winter,  a 
respectable  audience,  or  even  a  crowd,  soon  gathers 
to  gaze  at  the  ^'  foreign  devil,"*'  or  to  hear  singing 
which  is  so  unorthodox,  because  not  falsetto  in  char- 
acter. 

The  singing  over,  and  politeness  having  overcome 
their  prejudices,  they  are  now  seated.  In  new  dis- 
tricts it  will  hardly  do  to  offer  prayer,  as  this  method 
of  proceeding  might  be  mistaken  for  a  magic  incanta- 
tion to  entrap  them,  and  so  cause  a  stampede.  Few 
can  hope  to  hold  an  audience  if  a  long  passage  of 
Scripture  is  read.     Beginning  immediately,  there- 


THE  MISSIONARIES  AT   WORK  Ug 

fore,  the  missionary,  by  conversation  or  in  simple  ad- 
dress, attempts  to  bring  before  his  auditors  the  great 
facts  of  God,  sin,  and  salvation.  Interruptions  are 
numerous  :  peanut- venders  may  shout  their  wares  ; 
old  friends  recognize  each  other  across  the  room,  and 
start  an  animated  conversation  ;  an  opium-smoker 
attempts  to  create  a  disturbance  ;  an  intermittent 
procession  of  smokers  circulate  about  the  stove  or  in- 
cense-spiral to  light  their  pipes  ;  a  passing  mandarin 
or  a  street  brawl  calls  out  the  entire  audience  to  *'  be- 
hold the  hot  racket, ^^  etc.,  etc.  But  they  soon  return, 
and  comers  and  goers  keep  the  chapel  supplied  all  day 
long.  Preaching  alternates  with  tea-drinking,  con- 
versations with  groups,  reading,  and  the  sale  of  books 
and  Scriptures,  and  instruction  of  any  inquirers 
present.  So  few  have  ever  heard  the  gospel  before, 
and  so  rarely  come  again,  that  this  agency  is  useful 
in  scattering  broadcast  an  inkling  of  the  truth,  rather 
than  in  direct  conversion. 

3.  Itineration  requires  some  nerve  and  great  pow- 
ers of  adaptation.  Journeying  on  foot,  by  wheelbar- 
row, cart,  sedan-chair,  or  boat,  a  walled-city  is  visited, 
usually  on  a  day  when  a  fair  is  being  held.  Armed 
with  books  and  Scriptures,  the  itinerant  takes  up  his 
position  on  the  side  of  the  narrow,  crowded  street, 
and  amid  the  bedlam  of  shouting  sellers  of  all  kinds 
of  commodities  he  speaks  his  message  as  he  is  able. 
Very  rarely  is  one  stoned  out  of  the  city,  and  work 
can  be  continued  till  nightfall,  if  lungs  and  throat 
permit.  The  curious  crowd  tenders  an  evening  re- 
ception at  the  inn,  but  this  is  compensated  for  at  its 
close,  when  not  infrequently  an  awakened  searcher 
after  Truth  remains  to  continue  till  midnight,  per- 
haps, a  conversation  that  angels  might  rejoice  to 
hear. 

In  villages  this  itineration  is  much  less  taxing  and 
more  fruitful.  Seated  beside  the  village  well,  or 
standing  on  the  steps  of  the  dingy  temple,  groups  of 
farmers  jrfst  in  from  the  fields,  and  often  women — 
who  rarely  appear  in  public  in  the  cities — gather 


DAWN  ON  THE  HILLS  OF  T'ANG 


round  to  look  on  and  to  hear  the  stranger's  words. 
A  talk-sermon,  general  friendliness,  catechisms  or 
tracts  bought,  and  perhaps  a  few  simple  characters 
written  on  the  hard  earth  of  the  highway  or  thresh- 
ing-floor to  testify  to  the  truth  of  the  gospel,  are  the 
means  used  by  the  Spirit  to  regenerate  lives. 

Where  such  itineration  is  systematicy  and  progress 
can  be  made,  as  in  the  field  of  the  American  Presby- 
terians and  English  Baptists  in  Shan-tung,  this  work 
is  exceedingly  valuable.  The  German  missionaries 
in  Kuang-tung  are  also  great  believers  in  country 
work,  as  contrasted  with  the  more  unfavorable  efforts 
made  in  Chinese  cities.  The  late  Dr.  Nevius  was  the 
leading  advocate  of  the  fully  developed  village-circuit 
system,  and  it  can  be  found  described  in  his  "  Methods 
of  Mission  Work.''  In  a  word,  his  plan  is  to  interest  vil- 
lages through  itineration,  and  as  soon  as  inquirers  ap- 
pear, make  the  ablest  of  them  the  leader  of  the  group. 
These  meet  periodically  for  the  study  of  a  graduated 
series  of  lessons  and  for  worship.  These  leaders  are 
themselves  instructed  through  station-classes  at  the 
missionaries'  home.  Eev.  A.  G-.  Jones's  modification 
of  this  system  is,  however,  more  productive  of  per- 
manent desirable  results,  perhaps. 

The  Native  Church. — This  is  the  natural  out- 
come of  mission  schools.  Christian  literature,  and  an 
oral  proclamation  of  the  gospel.  Upon  its  purity  and 
activity  depends  the  future  of  Christianity  in  China. 

1.  A  traveller  visiting  one  of  these  churches  would 
see  little  peculiar  about  them.  To  be  sure  it  may  be 
only  a  ''church  in  the  house"  of  some  Chinese 
Aquila  and  Priscilla,  but  that  is  surely  apostolic. 
Then  if  in  a  church  building,  the  sexes  may  be  sep- 
arated by  a  "  middle  wall  of  partition,"  and  creeping 
babies  and  unquiet  dogs  may  be  much  in  evidence. 
He  would  note  the  hearty  singing,  albeit  discordant, 
the  kneeling  audience  engaged  in  prayer,  and  would 
remark  the  exceedingly  simple  and  scriptural  form  of 
the  sermon,  if  he  could  understand  it.  At  the  con- 
clusion of  the  service  he  would  see  evidences    of 


THE  MISSIONARIES  AT  WORK  121 

apostolicity  in  the  mntnal  affection  or  regard  shown  ; 
and  if  he  followed  inquirers  to  waiting-rooms  and 
saw  the  kindliness  exhibited  and  the  desire  to  instruct 
them  in  Christian  truth  and  life  by  the  **  church- 
friends  " — members — he  would  believe  in  missions. 

2.  A  well-regulated  Chinese  Sunday-school  is  an 
inspiration.  Bright-faced  boys,  demure  girls  with 
'*  willow  gait "  and  flower-bedecked  jet  black  hair,  a 
few  youths  and  maidens,  middle-aged  and  gray-haired 
men  and  women,  are  keenly  enjoying  the  singing, 
the  lesson -study,  in  preparation  for  which  consider- 
able time  has  been  spent,  and  the  blackboard  work,  or 
lesson  review.  Few  methods  have  excited  greater  in- 
terest than  those  of  modern  Sunday-schools  of  the 
West,  adapted  to  conditions  in  China. 

3.  Though  young  peoples^  societies,  both  of  the 
Young  Men's  Christian  Association  and  Endeavor 
type,  are  very  useful,  they  are  somewhat  hampered 
by  the  prevalent  opinions  concerning  the  inferiority 
of  youth  and  the  relation  of  the  sexes.  While  mixed 
young  peoples'  societies  are  a  success  in  some  mis- 
sions, a  better  effect  is  usually  produced  on  the  com- 
munity if  the  sexes  meet  by  themselves.  The  feel- 
ing of  personal  responsibility  for  the  religious  life  of 
other  Christians  and  for  the  salvation  of  neighbors 
has  been  a  new  and  much-needed  element  introduced 
by  these  organizations. 

The  Association  has  been  especially  helpful,  and  in 
some  cases  has  changed  the  members  from  useless 
hangers-on  in  the  church  to  being  inventive  and 
active  unpaid  fishers  of  men.  New  methods  have 
"been  so  useful  that  they  have  overcome  in  some  dis- 
tricts the  prejudice  against  youthfulness.  In  places 
where  students  are  gathered  in  some  numbers,  it  has 
been  most  successful.  The  conventions  arising  from 
these  young  peoples'  societies  have  given  the  native 
Christians  a  greater  sense  of  solidarity  than  any 
other  fact  perhaps. 

4.  The  condition  of  the  churches  is  further  apop 
tolic  in  that  some  of  their  saints  are  of  the  seamy  sort, 


DAIVN  ON  THE  HILLS   OF  T'ANG 


just  as  in  Corinth.  This  makes  discipline  a  matter 
of  much  importance  and  anxiety  to  the  missionary. 
The  mutual  suspicion  and  fear  of  petty  revenge  which 
has  before  conversion  filled  their  life,  operates  to 
make  them  conceal  evils  until  an  explosion  occurs, 
and  then  in  the  midst  of  mutual  recriminations  facts 
are  hard  to  ferret  out.  In  older  communities,  where 
a  substratum  of  faithful  Christians  is  present,  thece 
evils  are  few  and  do  not  bring  serious  reproach  on 
the  Church.  Polygamy  in  some  cases  has  caused  much 
trouble,  and  in  others  opium  -  smokers  and  '^  rice 
Christians  "  have  been  the  source  of  mischief.  Im- 
purity, strange  to  say,  has  occasioned  remarkably  few 
lapses  from  the  faith.  One  of  the  great  needs  of  the 
Chinese  Christian  is  that  of  a  stronger  conviction  of 
the  unity  of  the  Church  of  Christ,  and  of  the  fact 
that  all  suffer  in  the  sin  of  one. 

5.  As  already  intimated,  self-support  is  a  perplex- 
ing problem  in  the  present  missionary  situation. 
Church  members  are  few  in  most  congregations  ; 
almost  all  of  them  are  from  the  poorest  class  in  society 
and  find  it  difiicult  to  make  ends  meet  since  they 
must  keep  the  Sabbath,  and  thus  suffer  in  the  keen 
competition  of  populous  China ;  and  they  live  in  a 
climate  and  on  soil  which  are  less  friendly  than  those 
of  Burma,  where  such  wonders  in  self-support  have 
been  seen.  For  these  and  other  reasons,  most  mis- 
sionaries have  asked  their  boards  to  assume  the  ex- 
penses, or  most  of  them,  until  the  church  should  be- 
come strong  enough  to  bear  them. 

Some  of  the  evils  of  this  policy  are  thus  stated  by 
Dr.  Nevius  :  ^*  It  weakens  and  may  break  up  new  sta- 
tions by  removing  from  them  their  most  intelligent 
and  influential  members  in  order  to  use  them  as 
evangelists  elsewhere ;  it  presents  Christianity  too 
much  as  an  alien  system,  supplied  by  foreign  funds 
and  propagated  for  the  foreigner's  benefit ;  it  has  a 
tendency  to  attract  applicants  for  baptism  influenced 
by  mercenary  motives,  and  to  retain  in  the  church 
persons  who  seek  mainly  worldly  advantages  ;  it  in- 


THE  MISSIONARIES  AT  WORK  1 23 

volves  the  necessity  of  a  large  amount  of  money  and 
of  a  great  deal  of  machinery  and  supervision  ;  it  cre- 
ates dissatisfaction  and  discussion  in  the  native 
Church,  arising  from  supposed  partiality  in  the  dis- 
tribution of  favors  ;  by  appealing  largely  to  temporal 
rather  than  to  spiritual  motives,  it  vitiates  the  char- 
acter of  Christianity  and  diminishes  its  power  ;  the 
worldly  or  mercenary  element,  which  at  first  promotes 
a  rapid  and  abnormal  growth,  is  very  apt  to  be  the 
cause  at  no  distant  period  of  an  equally  rapid  decline 
and  disintegration."  Though  his  advocacy  of  a  sys- 
tem to  avoid  these  evils  has  great  favor  in  America, 
Chinese  missionaries,  while  acknowledging  the  evils 
mentioned,  are  far  from  regarding  his  system  of  pre- 
vention as  successful,  mainly  because  it  is  too  super- 
ficial. In  a  word,  this  problem  admits  of  no  one  solu- 
tion, and  all  boards  are  endeavoring  to  create  a  spirit 
of  independence  as  rapidly  as  possible. 

6.  Closely  allied  with  the  problem  just  mentioned, 
is  that  of  self-propagation  by  the  older  established 
churches  that  may  have  already  come  to  the  position 
of  self-support.  A  strong  Christian  Association  or 
Endeavor  Society  can  do  much  in  this  direction,  es- 
pecially if  the  former  is  made  up  of  the  members  of 
a  single  church.  Another  method  that  has  been 
adopted  in  a  few  cases  is  to  have  the  church  appoint 
members  to  itinerate  during  the  less  busy  season,  pay- 
ing their  light  travelling  expenses  where  necessary. 
In  the  Nevius  system,  the  infant  church  exists  for 
others  as  well  as  for  itself,  and  the  work  of  teaching 
neighbors  proceeds  from  the  very  beginning.  In 
southeastern  China,  both  self-support  and  self-prop- 
agation have  advanced  quite  satisfactorily,  as  it  has 
in  many  stations  of  the  China  Island  Mission. 

7.  Writers  in  Christian  lands  have  bewailed  as  an 
even  greater  evil  threatening  the  mission  churches 
the  existence  of  denominationalism.  Whatever  may 
be  true  of  Japan,  this  has  not  proven  a  serious  evil 
thus  far  in  China,  except  within  limited  areas,  and 
in  the  case  of  two  or  three  boards.     As  a  matter  of 


124  DAWN  ON   THE  HILLS  OF  T'ANG 

fact,  very  many  Christians  do  not  even  know  the 
name  of  the  denomination  to  which  they  belong, 
Chang-lao  Hui,  Kung-li  Hui,  Chien-tu  Hui,  etc., 
mean  about  as  much  to  them  as  to  the  reader.  They 
do  know  that  they  belong  to  the  Yeh-su  Chiao,  Je- 
sus Sect,  as  opposed  to  the  T'ien  Chu  Ohiao,  or  Lord 
of  Heaven  Sect — Catholics — but  beyond  this  many 
have  not  gone  in  denominationalism.  It  is  true  that 
some  time  and  money  may  be  unwisely  expended  in 
carrying  on  two  higher  educational  institutions,  for 
instance,  when  one  would  do  for  several  boards  in 
that  locality  ;  but  as  a  rule  comity  is  carefully  re- 
garded and  most  stations  exist  in  a  field  of  their  own 
with  Christians  of  no  other  denomination  near. 
Each  year  more  attention  is  being  paid  to  economy  of 
men  and  means,  and  denominationalism  causes  al- 
most no  harm  in  the  Empire. 

Occasional  Efforts. — Under  this  head  may  be 
placed  items  which  do  not  constitute  the  programme  of 
most  boards,  or  which  are  only  occasionally  operative. 

1.  Conventions  and  conferences  are  growing  in  num- 
ber and  are  being  recognized  as  a  profitable  invest- 
ment of  mission  funds.  Spiritual  power  and  wise 
direction  of  effort  are  consequent  upon  these  gather- 
ings, and  they  mark  distinct  epochs  in  the  history  of 
Chinese  missions.  As  India  and  Japan  have  begun 
the  system  of  annual  conferences  for  the  promotion 
of  the  spiritual  life,  so  the  decennial  conferences  at 
Shanghai  for  the  discussion  of  methods  and  adminis- 
trative details,  are  being  supplemented  by  more  fre- 
quent sectional  gatherings  for  spiritual  purposes, 
rerhaps  no  fact  promises  more  of  blessing  in  the 
future  than  this  assembling  together  of  the  mission- 
aries of  China.     Local  conferences  are  also  useful. 

2.  Efforts  for  the  literati  of  the  Empire  are  in- 
creasingly important  with  the  entry  of  China  into 
the  wider  world-brotherhood.  It  is  a  difficult  task, 
and  one  from  which  little  good  has  resulted,  beyond 
that  of  removing  ignorance  and  creating  friendli- 
ness.   High  officials  cannot  be  Christians  and  hold 


THE  MISSIONARIES  AT  WORK  I25 

office,  since  their  position  requires  idolatrous  acts 
of  worship,  and  at  present  almost  necessitates  dis- 
honest actions,  unless  officials  were  men  of  indepen- 
dent fortunes. 

Lectures  are  thus  far  only  slightly  useful  and  will 
probably  continue  to  be  so,  until  literary  men  cease 
to  fear  one  another  and  are  willing  to  come  in  num- 
bers to  such  meetings.  Private  interviews  and  visit- 
ation are  far  more  effective  in  imparting  a  knowledge 
of  Christianity  and  Western  progress. 

Museums  in  connection  with  private  work  are  un- 
doubtedly helpful  and  have  been  successfully  used  in 
three  or  four  centres.  With  the  coming  of  Western 
manufactures  and  industrial  reforms,  advocates  of 
this  sort  of  service  confidently  expect  the  leaders  of 
China  to  take  an  increasing  interest  in  such  collec- 
tions of  products  of  Occidental  skill. 

Far  more  promising  is  the  attempt  to  interest  the 
higher  classes  through  specially  prepared  literature. 
The  backbone  of  Hu-nan^s  opposition  to  Christianity 
has  been  injured,  if  not  broken,  by  this  weapon,  and  the 
Emperor  himself  seems  to  be  open  to  this  method  of 
approach.  Periodicals  and  the  translation  of  such 
volumes  as  Mackenzie's  ''Nineteenth  Century ''  have 
already  furnished  material  for  discussion  in  sporadic 
and  short-lived  reform  clubs. 

Additional  Agencies. — In  the  Statistical  Table 
no  place  has  been  given  to  organizations  which  do 
not  commission  special  foreign  agents  to  do  their 
work  in  the  Empire,  but  which  do  a  most  important 
work  for  the  people. 

1.  First  among  these  efforts  may  be  placed  the  aid 
furnished  by  the  Tract  Societies  of  the  West,  which 
nobly  co-operate  with  the  Tract  Societies  of  China. 
The  main  societies  working  in  the  Empire  are  the 
North  China  Tract  Society,  with  Peking  as  its  head- 
quarters, the  Chinese  Tract  Society  of  Shanghai, 
the  Central  China  Eeligious  Tract  Society  of  Han- 
k'ou,  and  the  Kiangsi-Hunan  Tract  Press.  Aided 
by  the  American  Tract  Society  and  the   Religious 


126  DAWN  ON  THE  HILLS  OF  T'ANG 

Tract  Society  of  London,  tliey  are  yearly  issuing 
myriads  of  tracts  adapted  to  the  dialects  of  the  regions 
occupied,  besides  periodicals  of  great  value  in  mis- 
sion work.  Most  of  these  sell  their  product  to  the 
natives  at  a  greatly  reduced  price,  or  even  donate 
them  where  thought  desirable. 

The  Society  for  the  Diffusion  of  Christian  and 
General  Knowledge,  commonly  known  as  the  Dif- 
fusion Society,  has  a  somewhat  different  object  in 
view.  Its  publications  are  intended  for  general 
enlightenment  and  for  the  higher  classes  not  reached 
by  ordinary  efforts.  The  books  and  periodicals  are 
accordingly  more  apologetic  and  scientific  in  charac- 
ter than  those  of  the  Tract  Societies,  and  are  usually 
sold  at  cost  price. 

Book-lending  Societies  among  the  native  Christians 
are  intended  to  make  these  publications  accessible  to 
hitherto  unreached  classes,  such  as  school-teachers, 
local  officials,  and  gentry.  Calls  and  conversation 
lead  to  the  loan  of  books,  and  this  gives  opportunity 
to  call  again,  extend  the  acquaintance,  and  make 
clear  what  is  misunderstood. 

2.  The  mission  presses  have  been  most  potent 
agencies  for  good,  from  the  first  one  established  by 
Drs.  Morrison  and  Milne  of  the  London  Mission 
down  to  the  latest  one  set  up.  They  have  not  only 
furnished  valuable  books,  but  have  taught  China 
how  to  print  in  modern  style  and  by  more  economical 
methods.  The  two  largest,  and  among  the  most 
important  mission  presses  of  the  world,  are  those  of 
the  American  Presbyterians  at  Shanghai  and  of  the 
American  Methodists  at  Fu-chou.  Others  are  the 
Church  Missionary  Society's  at  Ningpo,  the  English 
Presbyterians'  at  Swatau,  the  National  Bible  Society 
of  Scotland's  at  Han-k'^ou,  and  the  Methodist  Central 
China  Press  at  Kiukiang. 


yiii 

NEW    CHIITA 

As  was  shown  in  Chapter  VI.,  war  has  been  the 
great  awakener  of  China.  At  what  moment  the 
Empire  reached  the  stage  when  the  name  '^  New 
China"  was  first  rightly  applicable  it  is  hard  to  say. 
Most  writers  would  probably  agree  that  the  present 
movement  began  as  the  result  of  the  war  with  Japan 
of  1894-95.  With  other  foreign  aggressions  following 
shortly  afterward,  the  momentum  speedily  increased, 
and  after  the  Boxer  Uprising  it  was  under  full  head- 
way. 

Causes  of  Recent  Changes.— 1.  An  under- 
lying and  often  forgotten  cause  of  the  revolution 
which  is  quietly  taking  place  in  China  is  found  in  a 
fundamental  characteristic  of  the  Chinese  race, 
which  may  be  called  retar dative  conservatism.  While 
this  trait  is  common  enough  among  all  classes,  it  is 
found  in  its  flower  in  the  officials  and  other  literati. 
Reforming  and  progressive  members  being  excepted, 
the  mission  of  this  influential  element  in  society  has 
been  to  keep  down  the  pace  of  progress,  and  when 
innovations  are  decided  upon,  to  delay  their  realiza- 
tion to  the  last  moment.  That  the  Chinese  should 
be  thus  conservative  is  most  natural.  For  millenni- 
ums they  were  far  in  advance  of  the  rest  of  the  world 
in  all,  outside  the  realm  of  aesthetics  and  religion,  that 
makes  life  worth  living.  It  was  not  their  wish  that 
the  Occident  should  intrude  itself  upon  the  Orient, 
still  less  that  the  barbarian  should  force  his  wares 
and  his  wars  upon  a  self-satisfled  and  peace-loving 
people.     Change  in  every  form  was  very  distasteful, 

127 


128  DAWN  ON  THE  HILLS  OF  T'ANG 

and  tlie  innovator  was  most  heartily  hated  for  daring 
to  disturb  the  equilibrium  of  the  Middle  Kingdom 
and  its  age-old  inertia.  No  Westerner  can  realize  the 
contempt  with  which  in  many  cases  the  foreign  bar- 
barian is  still  regarded,  even  when  he  is  smilingly 
received  by  most  polite  scholars  and  officials.  When 
retardative  conservatism  faced  the  marshalling  of  the 
Occident  after  the  close  of  China^s  war  with  Japan, 
it  furnished  the  final  cause  for  resistance  to  threat- 
ened as  well  as  actual  changes  in  the  Empire's  tra- 
ditional status,  and  this  resistance  merely  hastened 
the  dreaded  transformation. 

2.  Political  Causes. — Following  the  Chinese  order 
*^from  the  near  to  the  remote,"  there  was  2i political 
situation  at  liome  which  furthered  the  cause  of 
progress.  Whenever  difficult  conditions  confront  the 
people,  they  are  apt  to  criticise  their  Manchu  rulers 
as  the  cause  of  it  all,  even  when  the  Throne  is  in  no 
way  responsible.  Though  the  secret  sects  and  a 
small  body  of  reformers  are  the  parties  that  voice 
such  a  feeling  of  restiveness  under  the  foreign  press- 
ure, the  number  of  malcontents  among  the  common 
people  was  constantly  increasing.  When,  in  addition 
to  this  chronic  dislike  of  Manchu  domination,  there 
was  the  added  conviction  that  neither  the  Emperor 
nor  the  Empress  Dowager  was  competent  to  stem  the 
tide  of  foreign  diplomacy  and  the  new  industrialism, 
the  anti-dynastic  spirit  grew,  and  it  would  probably 
have  manifested  itself  in  some  semi-revolutionary 
outbreak  with  the  consequent  changes  thereby  in- 
volved, even  if  there  had  been  no  Boxer  fulminate  to 
produce  the  explosion  of  1900. 

International  politics,  however,  were  far  more  in- 
fluential than  domestic  political  discontent  in  giving 
birth  to  New  China.  ''  The  most  favored  nation '' 
clause  of  early  treaties,  giving  to  every  power  the 
same  advantages  secured  by  any  one  of  them,  was 
the  most  fruitful  cause  of  irritation.  Western  syn- 
dicates, realizing  the  value  of  railway  and  mining 
concessions  particularly,  sent  their  representatives  to 


NEW  CHINA  129 


China  to  secure  these  privileges.  When  those  from' 
one  nation  sncceeded,  the  syndicates  of  another  coun- 
try brought  pressure  to  bear  upon  their  minister  to 
secure  for  them  an  equivalent  prize,  urging  the 
treaty  clause  as  their  clinching  argument.  Peking 
was  thus  the  scene  of  an  unrighteous  scramble  for 
most  that  was  valuable  in  the  Empire. 

A  more  serious  irritant  than  the  above  was  the 
movement  looking  toward  the  jyartition  of  the  Em- 
2nre,  or  at  least  the  establishment  of  spheres  of  in- 
fluence. This  agitation  was  the  natural  outcome  of 
Japan's  victory  in  her  war  with  China.  So  easy  a 
conquest  by  a  Power  which  was  then  supposed  to  be 
of  inferior  ability  dispelled  the  opinion,  held  until 
that  time  by  Occidentals,  that  China  had  great 
potential  strength  and  that  only  through  diplomacy 
could  advantages  be  won  for  the  West.  By  the 
treaty  of  peace  of  April  17,  1895,  the  Liao-tung 
Peninsula, — including  Port  Arthur, — the  Pescadores, 
and  Formosa,  were  ceded  to  Japan,  and  an  indemnity 
of  200,000,000  taels  was  exacted.  China's  appeal  for 
aid  in  meeting  the  indemnity  resulted  in  such  re- 
monstrances on  the  part  of  Eussia,  Germany,  and 
France  that  Japan  was  restrained  from  taking  pos- 
session of  Liao-tung.  Immediately  Eussia  showed 
her  true  character,  as  did  the  other  two  Powers, 
whose  plea  was  that  if  Japan  retained  Liao-tung,  she 
would  be  a  menace  to  China's  territorial  integrity. 
Eussia  demanded  the  right  of  extending  railways  to 
Vladivostok  and  to  Port  Arthur,  and  subsequently 
she  brought  in  a  considerable  military  force  to  pro- 
tect the  new  interests.  France  claimed  the  right  to 
extend  the  Tong-king  railway  into  Kuang-hsi,  and 
Germany  demanded  mining  and  financial  privileges. 
A  little  later,  on  November  1,  1897,  two  German 
Catholic  missionaries  were  murdered  in  Shan-tung, 
and  this  led  to  the  German  occupation  of  Kiao-chou 
(Chiao-chou)  Bay  and  the  insistence  upon  a  number 
of  advantages  affecting  the  occupation  of  Chiao-chou 
and  the  exploitation  of  mines  and  railways.     Well 


13©  DAWN  ON  THE  HILLS  OF  T'ANG 

might  the  ''  N'orth  China  Daily  News''  say,  a  month 
later,  "  The  action  of  the  Germans  in  Shan-tnng  is 
obvionsly  a  prelude  to  the  partition  of  China  "  ;  for 
on  March  8,  1898,  Kussia  peremptorily  demanded, 
and  on  the  27th  obtained.  Port  Arthur,  including 
Ta-lien  Wan  and  800  square  miles  of  adjacent  terri- 
tory. This  necessitated  Great  Britain's  securing  an- 
other strategic  point  south  of  Port  Arthur,  at  Wei- 
hai-wei  in  Shan-tung,  which  was  accomplished  six 
days  after  Eussian  demands  were  agreed  to  by  China. 
Twenty  days  later  France  demanded  possession  of 
Kuang-chou  Wan  and  obtained  it  May  2,  1898. 
Shortly  thereafter  Japan  secured  concessions  in  five 
important  trade  centres  of  the  Empire,  and  by  1899 
there  was  not  in  all  China's  long  coast  line  a  single 
harbor  in  which  she  could  mobilize  her  own  ships 
without  the  consent  of  the  hated  foreigner.  This 
triumph  of  diplomacy  and  outrageous  wrong  natu- 
rally incensed  the  Throne  and  still  further  increased 
the  unrest  of  the  people  who  placed  the  responsibil- 
ity for  this  unblushing  robbery  upon  the  Court. 

3.  The  Industrial  Situation. — China  is  in  many 
provinces  densely  populated.  Her  masses  must  earn 
their  bread  against  much  competition  ;  and  if  em- 
ployment is  taken  away,  their  perennial  and  deep 
poverty  instantly  creates  serious  conditions.  In  a 
number  of  centres,  as  Shanghai  and  Hanyang,  for- 
eign mills,  iron-works,  etc.,  furnish  new  employ- 
ments, but  this  is  at  the  expense  of  many  house 
industries.  The  machine  of  the  West  to  the  unedu- 
cated Celestial  seems  to  be  the  foe  of  his  own  tools ; 
and  when  railways  and  steam  craft  appear,  a  single 
train  or  steamer  does  the  work  of  hundreds  or  thou- 
sands of  carters,  barrow  men,  and  boatmen.  It  was 
wholly  natural  that  with  such  imperfect  and  short- 
sighted views  the  populace,  in  districts  where  steam 
and  machines  were  most  in  evidence  and  where  no 
compensating  industries  came  into  existence,  should 
rise  against  the  new  peril.  It  was  this  fear  of  loss  of 
life,  resulting  from  inability  to  become  quickly  ad 


NEW  CHINA 


131 


justed  to  the  new  regime,  that  impelled  the  T^nng 
Chon  boatmen  and  carters  to  lead  on  the  mob  which 
destroyed  the  railway  between  Peking  and  the  cities 
of  Tientsin  and  Pao-ting  Fu  in  the  summer  of  1900. 
While  in  the  end  the  Empire  will  greatly  profit  by 
the  inventions  of  the  Occident,  the  period  of  transi- 
tion, especially  if  machines  are  introduced  too  rapidly 
and  unwisely,  is  one  that  must  disturb  the  peace  of 
China.  Thus  far  there  has  been  little  shifting  of 
the  population  from  hamlets  and  villages  to  centres 
of  the  new  industries,  but  when  that  time  comes 
new  elements  will  enter  into  the  Chinese  industrial 
problem. 

4.  Eclucatio7ial  Com2:)lications. — Previous  to  the 
Empress  Dowager's  coup  d'etat  of  1898,  the  Emperor 
had  come  to  believe  that  China's  greatest  hope  in  the 
midst  of  the  gathering  Occidental  storm  was  to  be 
expected  from  the  introduction  of  Western  learning. 
Decrees  relating  to  the  new  education  were  issued 
which  were  too  revolutionary  ;  but  if  they  had  been 
moderate,  they  would  have  thrown  into  consterna- 
tion the  literati  and  the  civil  mandarins.  It  should 
be  remembered  that  for  long  centuries  the  Chinese 
official  has  secured  his  position  on  a  civil  service 
basis.  No  high  office  is  likely  to  come  to  one  who  is 
not  a  third  degree  graduate,  and  that  degree  calls  for 
an  average  of  twenty  years'  arduous  study,  though 
many  do  not  receive  it  until  they  are  over  fifty  years 
of  age.  The  new  educational  regime  was  to  be 
mainly  based  upon  Western  science  and  history, 
while  the  Chinese  Classics,  which  had  been  the  staple 
of  the  old  education,  were  given  little  place.  This 
meant  that  thousands  of  aspirants  for  office,  who  had 
spent  years  of  patient  study  to  reach  the  coveted 
honors,  would  be  disqualified  through  their  igno- 
rance of  the  knowledge  of  the  AVest.  On  the  other 
liand,  mere  striplings,  most  of  whom  had  acquired 
the  modern  learning  in  mission  schools  and  colleges, 
were  far  more  likely  than  they  to  pass  the  new  exam- 
inations.    Before  the  educational  decrees  had  had 


132 


DAWN  ON  THE  HILLS  OF  T'ANG 


time  to  become  effective,  the  Empress  Dowager  had 
rescinded  them  ;  but  the  new  learning  had  begun  to 
creep  into  the  examination  papers,  with  the  certainty 
that  a  still  larger  introduction  of  such  questions 
would  follow.  As  the  literati  are  the  real  ralers  of 
China,  and  because  their  future  honors  and  official 
emolument  were  imperiled,  another  element  was  in- 
troduced into  the  already  complex  problem  of  neces- 
sitated progress  in  the  person  of  these  retardative 
literati. 

5.  Religious  Factors. — Other  causes  having  some- 
thing to  do  with  the  anti-foreign  sentiment  among 
officials  and  with  the  Boxer  Uprising  of  1900  were 
religious.  Christianity  of  the  Eoman,  Greek,  and 
Protestant  types  brought  to  the  Empire  religious 
ideas  and  practices  which  were  diametrically  opposed 
to  ancient  beliefs  in  very  many  particulars.  A  divi- 
sive factor  everywhere,  just  as  was  St.  Paul  (Acts  xvii. 
6,  18,  32,  etc.),  the  converts  were  frequently  the 
objects  of  petty  or  serious  persecution.  This  was 
contrary  to  the  treaties,  and  hence  the  missionaries 
of  all  three  confessions  protested  against  the  wrong. 
Protestant  leaders  rarely  pressed  suits  and  then  only 
in  important  cases.  The  Komanists  were  more  ready 
to  aid  in  litigation,  and  this  encouraged  many  of  the 
baser  sort  with  litigious  tendencies  to  affiliate  with 
Catholics.  But  whether  Protestant  or  Catholic,  the 
common  result  of  appearing  at  law  courts  was  to 
involve  officials  in  disgrace  or  in  criticism — some- 
times with  loss  of  position — or  else  to  secure  verdicts 
that  usually  brought  suffering  to  the  guilty  and  en- 
tailed a  heritage  of  hatred  for  the  missionary  who 
had  aided  in  securing  punishment.  The  Imperial 
decree  of  March  15,  1899,  still  further  augmented 
official  dislike  of  Eoman  missionaries.  It  ordered  in 
Section  1  :  ^^  In  the  different  degrees  of  the  eccle- 
siastical hierarchy,  bishops  being  in  rank  and  dignity 
the  equals  of  viceroys  and  governors,  it  is  agreed  to 
authorize  them  to  demand  to  see  viceroys  and  gov- 
ernors.    .     .     .    Vicars-general  and  archdeacoiis  will 


NEW  CHINA  133 


be  anttvrized  to  see  provincial  treasurers  and  judges, 
and  tao-t'ais.  Oilier  priests  will  be  authorized  to 
see  prefects  of  the  first  and  second  class,  independ- 
ent prefects,  sub-prefects,  and  other  functionaries/^ 
There  was  thus  established  in  a  sense  an  imperium 
in  imverio.  While  the  decree  vastly  increased  Cath- 
olicism's power,  its  assumption  was  attended  with 
the  gravest  dangers,  and  it  made  the  priesthood  still 
more  unpopular  with  officials  and  people.  The 
trotestants  wisely  refused  to  accept  any  such  privi- 
leges. 

Another  factor  entering  into  the  situation  was 
Chinese  religion.  Christianity  in  everj^  form,  but 
Protestantism  more  insistently,  holds  strong  views 
concerning  ancestor  worship,  in  most  cases  condemn- 
ing it.  As  this  cult  is  the  most  cherished  feature  of 
Chinese  religion,  it  was  natural  that  Christian  oppo- 
sition to  it  should  be  employed  as  an  argument 
against  foreigners  and  their  teachings.  There  was 
another  peculiarity  of  Chinese  Christians  which  had 
a  more  practical  bearing  upon  the  community  and 
>  religious  life.  Local  temples  are  ordinarily  erected 
by  public  subscription  ;  repairs  for  the  same  are  sim- 
ilarly secured.  Theatrical  exhibitions,  which  are 
partly  for  the  benefit  of  the  gods, — the  stage  is  often 
a  permanent  building  standing  opposite  the  god- 
room  of  the  temple, — are  likewise  dependent  upon 
the  contributions  of  the  community.  The  Chinese 
Christians  felt  in  conscience  bound  not  to  aid  in 
what  they  regarded  as  furthering  idolatry  and  false 
religion,  and  this  brought  a  larger  burden  upon 
the  others  in  the  community,  occasioning  further  ill- 
feeling. 

Among  the  influential  men  of  the  Empire,  animos- 
ity had  been  aroused  against  Christianity  on  the 
ground  that  Co7ificcianism  was  the  only  orthodox  doc- 
trine, and  that  Christianity  was  injuring  its  standing 
in  the  nation.  Thus  Chang  Chih-tung,  one  of  China^'s 
foremost  viceroys,  in  a  volume  published  by  the 
Tsnng-li  Ya-m6n  anc^  read  to  the  number  of  a  million 


134  DAWN  ON  THE  HILLS  OF  T'ANG 

copies  during  the  three  years  preceding  the  Boxei* 
Uprising,  says:  ^'^  Confucianism  is  in  danger!  .  .  » 
A  knowledge  of  the  benefits  to  be  derived  from  Con- 
fucianism cannot  be  obtained  simply  by  a  few  years 
of  hard  study.  If  only  this  limited  time  is  given  to 
Chinese  learning  and  Western  education  is  introduced, 
the  former  will  soon  decline  ;  in  fact  the  Canons  of 
our  Holy  Keligion  will  soon  perish.  The  thought 
makes  ns  tremble.  .  .  .  And  we  are  still  more 
apprehensive  when  we  consider  the  fact  that  in  China 
to-day  there  are  a  great  many  aimless  people  .  .  , 
who  speak  blasphemously  of  Confucius.''^  In  the 
Emperor^s  rescript  concerning  this  book  we  find, 
after  the  paragraph  ordering  viceroys,  governors,  and 
others  to  read  and  circulate  it,  the  following,  *^  And 
these  High  Officials  are  enjoined  to  use  their  sincere 
endeavors  to  encourage  and  exhort  the  people  to  hold 
in  reverence  the  Confucian  Eeligion  and  suppress 
all  baseless  rumors/^  The  significance  of  such  state- 
ments may  be  seen  from  this  paragraph  from  the  pen 
of  one  of  China's  best-known  missionaries,  Arthur  H. 
Smith,  D.D.:  "They  have  the  loftiest  moral  code 
which  the  human  mind  unaided  by  divine  revelation 
has  ever  produced,  and  its  crystalline  precepts  have 
been  the  rich  inheritance  of  every  successive  present 
from  every  successive  past.  The  certainty  that  this 
is  the  best  system  of  human  thought  as  regards  the 
relations  of  man  to  man  is  as  much  a  part  of  the 
thinking  of  every  educated  Chinese  as  his  vertebrae 
are  a  part  of  his  skeleton  ;  and  the  same  may  be  said 
of  the  uneducated  Chinese,  when  the  word  feeling  is 
substituted  for  thinking.^' 

When  the  Boxer  movement  began  to  gather  force, 
designing  priests  among  their  number  raised  the 
watch-cry,  "The  Gods  in  danger!''  And  many  of 
them  uttered  it  with  a  venom  begotten  from  the  Em- 
peror's edict,  in  which  he  ordered  that  minor  temples 
of  the  Buddhist  and  Taoist  faith  should  be  converted 
into  schools  for  instructing  the  people  in  Western 
learning,  which  meant  for  them  loss  of  occupation 


NEW  CHINA  135 


and  prestige.  "While  intelligent  Chinese  were  not 
influenced  by  such  a  cry,  it  served  as  an  incentive  to 
persecution  and  pillage  among  the  masses. 

Admitting  the  fact  that  religion  was  one  cause  of 
the  anti-foreign  uprising  of  1900  and  that  in  conse- 
quence it  aided  in  bringing  in  the  new  China  of  to- 
day, the  evils  of  that  awful  year  are  not  chargeable  to 
religion  to  any  large  extent,  nor  to  the  Protestant 
missionary.  Even  if  we  include  the  work  of  the 
missionary  printing  presses  and  of  the  Diffusion 
Society,  whose  publications  were  widely  read  and 
entered  the  palace  even,  this  charge  against  missions 
was  not  the  central  cause  of  enmity.  It  was  his  con- 
nection with  foreigners  and  not  with  their  religion 
that  occasioned  hatred  of  the  native  Christian,  as  was 
evidenced  by  the  slogan  of  1900,  '^^  Establish  the 
Empire  by  the  extermination  of  the  foreign !  '^  Their 
charges  against  Christians  were  summarized  in  the 
common  accusation,  •^'^He  follows  foreign  countries.'' 
As  the  Occidental  was  called  "^foreign  hairy  one,"  so 
the  native  Christian  was  a  '^^  secondary  hairy  one." 
And  this  designation  was  applied  not  only  to  Chris- 
tians but  also  to  "  the  man  who  ironed  a  foreigner's 
shirt,  or  helped  him  survey  a  railroad,  or  served  him 
as  a  teacher,  though  he  might  be  a  Buddhist  of  the 
Buddhists,  a  Confucianist  of  the  Confucianists." 

6.  TJie  Reformers. —  The  living  and  indigenous 
agents  of  recent  progress,  who  had  carefully  noted 
the  actual  effect  and  probable  outcome  of  the  factors 
already  mentioned,  were  the  reformers.  In  the 
month  of  May,  1898,  the  Emperor  began  to  give 
evidence  of  his  realization  of  the  need  for  decisive 
action,  if  China  was  to  maintain  an  independent  ex- 
istence. During  the  months  intervening  before 
September  of  the  same  year,  a  constant  succession  of 
decrees  startled  the  Empire  and  especially  the  reac- 
tionaries. These  men  had  everything  to  lose,  if  the 
Imperial  will  dominated,  and  naturally  they  pursued 
a  Fabian  policy  most  exasperating  to  the  Emperor. 
Consequently  he  turned  to  the  younger  men,  notably 


136  DAWN  ON  THE  HILLS  OF  T'ANG 

K'ang  Yii-wei,  a  native  of  a  village  near  Canton,  who 
had  acquired  such  a  reputation  that  he  was  com- 
monly known  as  ^'  K^ang,  the  Modern  Sage  and 
Eeformer."  It  was  currently  reported  that  he  had  a 
following  consisting  of  more  than  half  the  members 
of  the  Han-lin  Academy,  the  censors,  and  the  literati 
of  the  capital,  as  well  as  a  multitude  of  secretaries 
of  the  various  boards.  With  the  advice  of  this 
coterie  of  men  and  influenced  by  the  many  books 
that  the  Emperor  had  himself  read,  the  reform 
movement  proceeded  most  rapidly,  so  far  as  its  for- 
mulation and  authorization  were  concerned. 

But  even  if  the  officials  had  desired  to  obey  the 
revolutionary  edicts,  it  would  have  been  most  dif- 
ficult to  accomplish  a  complete  reorganization  of 
China,  governmental,  educational,  and  industrial,  in 
the  brief  period  of  a  few  months.  Delays,  necessary 
but  often  inimical  to  the  Imperial  program,  greatly 
incensed  the  Emperor,  until  finally  a  relatively  un- 
important circumstance  brought  on  the  coup  d'etat. 
"Wang  Chao,  a  third  class  Secretary  of  the  Board  of 
Rites,  sent  in  a  memorial  in  which  he  is  reported 
*' to  have  advocated  the  abolition  of  the  queue  and 
the  changing  of  the  Chinese  national  ^ress  to  that  of 
Western  lands ;  the  embracing  of  the  Christian  re- 
ligion as  that  of  the  State,  with  a  national  parlia- 
ment in  prospect ;  and  a  journey  by  the  Emperor  and 
Empress  Dowager  to  the  Mikado,  that  they  might  see 
for  themselves  the  pitiful  condition  of  China  as  com- 
pared with  Japan."  The  two  Presidents  of  the  Board 
were  so  shocked  by  his  revolutionary  ideas  that  they 
vehemently-expostulated  and  finally  joined  with  other 
influential  officials  in  denouncing  Wang.  The  Em- 
peror, learning  of  the  affair  and  c"onsidering  it  a 
direct;  blow  at  a  recent  decree  authorizing  subordi- 
nate officials  to  send  up  memorials,  took  steps  to  have 
the  officers  of  the  Board  of  Rites  punished.  This 
action  and  the  subsequent  dismissal  of  such  men 
as  Li  Hung-chang  from  the  Foreign  Office,  led  to 
an  appeal  to  the  Empress  Dowager  to  resume  the 


THE   LATE   VICEROY    LI    HUNG    CHANG 


PRINCE  SU,  FOREIGNERS     FRIEND  DURING  THE   SIEGE 


TiEJV  CHINA  137 


authority  that  she  had  so  lately  turned  over  to  her 
ward,  the  Emperor.  A  speedy  decision  and  a  merci- 
less course  of  action  followed  the  request,  and  on 
September  22,  Kuang  Hsii  left  the  Throne  for  vir- 
tual confinement.  The  reformers,  who  had  been  his 
eyes  and  brain  and  hands,  were  summarily  dealt 
with,  though  through  the  kindness  of  his  Imperial 
Master  K'^ang  Yii-wei  escaped  with  his  life.  On  that 
same  fateful  day  K'^ang's  brother  and  five  other  noble 
and  patriotic  young  men  were  beheaded  while  pro- 
testing that  though  the  grass  might  be  cut,  the 
roots  still  remained  and  would  shoot  forth  again  in 
a  more  favorable  time.  Dr.  Arthur  Smith  rightly 
says  of  that  momentons  hour  :  '^  In  the  New  China 
the  day  in  the  calendar  which  corresponds  to  the 
twenty-eighth  of  September,  1898,  will  be  observed 
as  a  sacred  Commemoration  Day  for  the  Six  Martyrs, 
who  willingly  gave  their  lives  for  the  liberties  of  their 
country."^  Subsequent  events  have  proved  that  they 
did  not  die  in  vain,  and  that  the  new  era  owes  more 
to  them  and  their  much-beloved  Emperor  than  to 
any  other  indigenous  force  working  for  the  Empire's 
regeneration. 

The  Climax  of  1900. — 1.  While  many  of  the 
Occidental  acts  of  aggression  above  spoken  of  fol- 
lowed the  resumption  of  power  by  the  Empress  Dow- 
ager in  1898,  the  hour  of  open  opposition  to  foreigners 
might  not  have  been  so  early  reached  had  it  not  been 
for  the  Boxers.  Though  this  society  had  probably 
existed  for  over  a  century,  its  renewed  activity  dates 
from  the  summer  of  1896,  when  it  made  itself 
known  in  the  province  of  Shan-tung  under  the  name 
of  I  Ho  Chilian,  literally  Eighteous — or  Public — 
Harmony  Fists.  As  the  last  word  is  part  of  a 
phrase  meaning  ^^  to  box  and  wrestle/'  they  came  to 
be  known  as  Boxers.  Other  names  for  the  society 
are  Ta  Tao  Hui,  "  Great  Sword  Society,''  I  Ho  T'uan, 
'^  Public  Harmony  Volunteers,"  and  the  later  official 
name,  I  Ho  Yung,  *^^  Public  Harmony  Braves." 

The  strength  of  the  Boxer  movement  from  1898  on- 


138  DAWN  ON  THE  HILLS  OF  T'ANG 

ward  was  due  to  famine,  flood,  the  incursion  of  the 
Germans  upon  Shan-tung  territory,  the  attitude  of 
German  Catholic  and  Protestant  missionaries,  and 
the  presence  of  railroad  engineers.  Yii  Hsien,  gov- 
ernor of  the  province  of  Shan-tung,  where  they  were 
most  numerous,  aided  them  secretly  as  well  as  pub- 
licly, until  foreign  remonstrance  at  Peking  led  to 
his  dismissal.  His  successor  dealt  with  the  Boxers  in 
so  determined  a  way  that  they  crossed  the  border  into 
the  Imperial  province  of  Chih-li.  The  time  was 
auspicious,  and  they  went  from  strength  to  strength. 
The  Boxer  cause  appealed  to  a  variety  of  people.  It 
was  in  this  province  that  railroads  and  Western  min- 
ing methods  had  been  most  extensively  introduced, 
and  hence  the  populace  was  ready  to  heed  their  cry 
for  the  expulsion  of  the  machine-bringing  foreign 
devil.  It  was  at  Peking  and  the  ports  that  the  syn- 
dicate promoters  hung  like  vultures  about  the  cor- 
rupt body  politic,  striving  to  gain  from  bribe-taking 
officials  rich  spoils  of  every  sort,  regardless  of  the 
wishes  and  iaterests  of  humbler  members  of  so- 
ciety. 

Yet  it  was  tJie  stcpemahiral  element  that  gave  the 
Boxers  their  strongest  hold  upon  the  people.  Re- 
ligiously they  had  combined  certain  features  of  Bud- 
dhism and  Taoism  into  an  attractive  whole.  Many 
of  the  divinities  of  these  faiths  were  "  deified  heroes 
of  extinct  dynasties,  whose  spirits  were  supposed  to 
animate  the  believer  to  such  an  extent  that  he  could 
do  the  very  deeds  which  had  been  wrought  ages 
ago.  ...  At  the  temples  of  the  various  divin- 
ities, or  in  the  presence  of  their  pictures,  the  initiated 
made  their  prostrations  and  invoked  the  aid  of  the 
gods.  .  .  .  The  mind  was  probably  fixed  upon 
the  Being  toward  whom  the  worship  was  directed, 
and  the  ultimate  object  was  to  become  possessed  by 
the  spirit  of  that  Being.  In  the  process  of  achieving 
that  end  the  devotee  was  seized  with  what  was  vari- 
ously described  as  spasms,  catalepsy,  or  epilepsy,  and 
often  passed  into  something  resembling  a  state  of 


NEW  CHINA  i^p 


trance  or  hypnotism.  At  certain  stages  of  this  ex- 
perience, they  seemed  to  be  literally  madmen,  daring 
everything  and  fearing  nothing,  as  was  often  proved 
later  when  they  came  into  collision  with  foreign 
troops.  When  the  trance  period  had  been  passed 
through  successfully,  the  worshipper  was  held  to  be 
quite  ** invulnerable."  Their  chief  claim  was  that 
these  and  other  evidences  of  power  were  traceable  to 
direct  assistance  from  the  '*^  Spirits,"  which  to  the 
number  of  countless  myriads  thronged  to  the  aid  of 
the  faithful.  The  Spirits  were  embodied  in  mere 
lads,  who  formed  a  notable  feature  of  their  proces- 
sions, as  they  marched  before  their  bloodthirsty  elders 
amid  banners  inscribed  with  the  motto,  '^Spirits  and 
Fists  Mutually  Assist." 

2.  ^'  The  Great  TrihulaUon" — What  wonder  is  it 
that  the  Empress  Dowager,  pressed  upon  by  the 
foreign  Powers  and  criticised  by  her  Manchu-hating 
subjects,  should  see  in  this  rapidly  growing  organiza- 
tion a  possible  ally  to  the  Throne  and  to  the  Imperial 
forces,  whose  united  ranks  might  drive  the  objects  of 
common  hatred  into  the  ocean  whence  they  came. 
It  is  reported  that  she  arrived  at  this  decision  after 
an  exhibition  of  their  reputed  invulnerability  had  sat- 
isfied her  representatives  in  Peking.  Her  covert  ap- 
probation of  the  Boxers  only  fanned  the  flames,  as 
di' !  secret  edicts,  one  of  which,  promulgated  Nov.  21, 
189 y,  closed  with  the  words,  '■^  Let  no  one  think  of 
making  peace,  but  let  each  strive  to  preserve  from 
destruction  or  spoliation  his  ancestral  home  and 
graves  from  the  ruthless  hands  of  the  invader."  Of 
this  invader  she  says  earlier  in  the  same  edict :  ^'  Our 
Empire  is  now  laboring  under  great  difficulties,  which 
are  becoming  daily  more  serious.  The  various  Pow- 
ers cast  upon  us  looks  of  tiger-like  voracity,  hustling 
each  other  in  their  endeavors  to  be  the  first  to  seize 
upon  our  innermost  territories.  They  think  that 
China,  having  neither  money  nor  troops,  would  never 
venture  to  go  to  war  with  them.  .  .  .  Never 
should  the  word  '  peace  "*  fall  from  the  mouths  of  our 


I4d  DAWN  ON  THE  HILLS  OF  T'ANG 

high  officials,  nor  should  they  even  allow  it  for  a  mo- 
ment to  rest  within  their  breasts." 

The  die  tuas  cast.  On  the  last  day  of  1899,  Eev. 
S.  P.  Brooks  became  the  proto-martyr  in  the  carnival 
of  destruction  which  before  the  summer  was  over  had 
brought  the  martyr's  crown  to  135  missionaries  and 
fifty-three  of  their  innocent  children,  188  Protestants 
in  all.  In  addition  forty-four  Eomanist  missionaries 
willingly  laid  down  their  lives,  nine  of  them  being  nuns 
and  the  remainder  priests  and  bishops.  The  number 
of  martyred  Chinese  Christians  is  not  known,  though 
it  is  believed  that  including  Catholics  and  Protestants 
many  thousands  yielded  their  lives  to  Boxer  cruelty 
and  hate.  Of  these,  400  out  of  the  700  Greek  Cath- 
olics of  Peking  were  bold  confessors  of  their  faith. 
What  a  holocaust  of  horror  the  foregoing  statements 
suggest  may  be  learned  from  the  pages  of  an  already 
large  martyrology,  in  which  are  chronicled  the  un- 
speakable sufferings  of  both  missionaries  and  their 
faithful  converts. 

One  hundred  and  fifty-nine  of  the  foreigners  and 
their  children  suffered  death  in  the  Province  of 
Shan-lisi  and  over  the  Mongolian  border,  seventeen 
in  the  Imperial  province  of  Chih-li,  eleven  in  Ch^- 
chiang,  and  one  in  Shan-tung.  Of  these,  100  were 
British,  and  fifty-six  were  Swedish,  while  thirty-two 
were  from  the  United  States.  The  society  which 
suffered  most  heavily  was  the  China  Inland  Mission 
with  seventy-nine  martyrs,  and  this  was  followed  by 
the  Christian  and  Missionary  Alliance  with  thirty- 
six,  the  American  Board  with  eighteen,  the  English 
Baptists  with  sixteen,  and  the  Shao-yang  Mission 
with  thirteen.  Five  other  societies  lost  less  than  ten 
each. 

3.  TJie  Siege  in  Pehing. — The  feature  of  this 
epoch-making  year  best  known  to  the  world  is  the 
gallant  stand  made  by  missionaries,  legationers,  and 
other  foreigners  of  Peking,  and  a  large  company  of 
Catholic  and  Protestant  Christians  in  and  near  the 
British  Legation.     This  little  handful  of  men  and 


NEW  CHINA  141 


women,  defended  by  450  marines,  successfully  re- 
sisted for  a  period  of  fifty-five  days  the  joint  assault 
of  Boxers  and  Imperial  troops.  Their  remarkable 
preservation  here  and  at  Pei  T'ang,  Northern  Cathe- 
dral— where  the  sufferings  and  dangers  of  the  Cath- 
olics besieged  were  more  prolonged  and  much  greater 
than  at  the  British  Legation — can  only  be  accounted 
for  by  a  distinct  supernatural  Power  working  in  their 
behalf.  During  these  terrible  days  the  attention  of 
the  civilized  world  was  intently  fixed  upon  the  diplo- 
matic and  missionary  representatives  of  fourteen 
nations,  about  whose  safety  nothing  more  was  known 
than  came  through  a  few  cipher  telegrams  and  the 
rumors  of  awful  deaths.  And  it  is  doubtless  true 
that  never  had  there  been  such  a  continuous  and  im- 
portunate volume  of  prayer  offered  up  for  any  body 
of  men  than  was  offered  in  their  behalf.  If  unbe- 
lievers smile  and  explain  away  all  divine  interven- 
tion, cold  civilians  and  colorless  diplomatic  corre- 
spondence looked  upon  the  Siege  in  the  spirit  of  M. 
Pichon,  who  reported  to  the  President  of  France: 
'^  It  is  a  wonder  the  besieged  were  able  to  resist  and 
be  saved.  A  series  of  extraordinary  events,  the 
origin  of  which  was  less  the  will  of  men  than  the 
occurrence  of  circumstances  which  could  not  be  fore- 
seen, was  the  only  thing  which  prevented  the  general 
massacre  to  which  they  seemed  dbndemned.  .  .  . 
Our  salvation,  therefore,  resulted  from  a  chain  of 
events  which  cannot  be  explained  by  logical  reason 
and  rational  considerations. "" 

The  part  talcen  hy  the  native  Christians  in  the 
Siege  was  a  most  creditable  and  important  one,  as  is 
suggested  by  this  sentence  from  a  letter  written  by 
United  States  Minister  Conger  to  the  missionaries 
upon  the  conclusion  of  the  Siege,  "Without  your 
intelligent  and  successful  planning  and  the  uncom- 
plaining execution  of  the  Chinese,  I  believe  our  sal- 
vation would  have  been  impossible.''  The  hardest 
tasks  were  not  shirked  by  the  Christians,  nor  the 
most  dangerous  commissions.     In  some  cases  they 


142 


DAWN  ON  THE  HILLS  OF  T'ANG 


served  as  amateur  soldiers  to  the  admiration  of  the 
trained  marines.  Two  of  the  Christians,  Ch^ng  and 
Yao,  risked  their  lives  as  messengers  to  Tientsin  and 
were  successful  in  bringing  back  most  valuable  in- 
formation. Mr.  Cheng  gave  half  of  the  $1,000  re- 
ceived for  his  services  to  found  a  scholarship  in  the 
Methodist  University. 

4.  Terms  of  Peace. — The  termination  of  the  Siege 
in  Peking  on  August  14,  was  followed  by  the  flight 
of  the  Court  to  Hsi-an  Fu,  the  ancient  capital  of  the 
Empire,  the  looting  of  Peking  by  fr>reigners,  the 
restoration  of  order,  the  execution  oV  a  few  of  the 
guilty  officials,  among  whom  was  the  archfiend, 
Yii  Hsien,  at  whose  bidding  as  Governor  of  the  prov- 
ince of  Shan-hsi  forty-five  foreign  missionaries  were 
hewn  down  at  his  own  door,  and  the  private  settle- 
ment of  old  grudges  by  Chinese  diplomacy,  or  by 
Christian  principle. 

After  these  preliminaries  ensued  a  prolonged  inter- 
national duel  in  which  the  Western  Powers  sought 
to  reach  a  settlement  with  the  Empress  Dowager. 
She  took  advantage  of  the  lack  of  harmony  among 
the  foreigners,  and  so  it  was  only  on  September  7, 
1901,  that  the  unseemly  wrangle  w^as  brought  to  an 
end.  The  protocol  finally  agreed  upon  gave  the 
Western  Powers  an  indemnity  of  450,000,000  taels, 
payable  in  thirty-nine  annual  instalments.  Serious 
as  this  condition  is  both  from  the  viewpoint  of  the 
poverty  of  the  people  and  the  fact  that  until  1940 
the  collection  of  tlie  fine  will  give  officials  an  annual 
opportunity  to  fleece  the  people  under  cover  of  for- 
eign compulsion,  other  more  humiliating  conditions 
were  demanded.  Thus  China  could  not  import  fire- 
arms for  two  years,  nor  permit  official  examinations 
to  be  held  for  five  years  in  cities  where  foreigners 
had  been  attacked  ;  an  important  part  of  the  Im- 
perial capital  must  be  added  to  the  already  spacious 
legation  area,  and  the  whole  was  to  be  fortified  and 
guarded  by  foreign  soldiery ;  the  Ta-ku  forts  com- 
manding the  river  entrance  to  the  capital  must  be 


NEW  CHINA 


143 


razed,  and  the  railway  from  there  to  Peking  must  be 
under  foreign  troops ;  magistrates,  even  viceroys, 
were  to  be  dismissed  and  disgraced,  if  they  did  not 
prevent  anti-foreign  outbreaks  and  sternly  punish 
their  leaders  ;  the  reception  of  foreign  ministers  was 
to  conform  to  Western  usage  ;  and  the  Tsung-li  Ya- 
men  was  to  give  place  to  a  new  ministry  of  foreign 
affairs,  the  Wai-wu  Pu,  which  should  be  elevated 
from  the  lowest  rank  to  the  highest  among  the  De- 
partments. Truly  China  was  forced  to  drink  a  most 
bitter  cup,  but  the  cup  was  no  bitterer  than  the  con- 
sequent feeling  of  antipathy  or  even  hatred. 

Effects  of  China's  Sanguinary  Awakening. 
— 1.  Tlie  first  results  of  the  Boxer  U2)rising  showed 
themselves  almost  as  soon  as  the  foreign  forces  had 
entered  Peking.  Even  before  opposition  had  been 
overcome  soldiers  of  Christian  nations  committed  the 
most  flagrant  acts  of  greed  and  lust  to  the  ruin  of 
native  purse  and  womanly  honor,  and  this  continued 
in  less  degree  until  their  withdrawal.  The  wrang- 
ling over  the  peace  terms,  added  to  exhibitions  of 
unrighteousness  earlier  shown  by  syndicates  in  their 
struggle  for  concessions,  proved  to  official  China  that 
the  Westerners'  supposed  moral  superiority  to  the 
Chinese  was  a  doubtful  quantity. 

But  there  were  advantages  coming  from  foreign 
occupation.  *' The  dirtiest  city  in  the  world  ^' soon 
began  to  take  on  a  new  aspect.  Peking  streets  ceased 
for  a  time  to  be  parallel  ditches  of  foul  liquid  filth  ; 
at  night  kerosene  street  lamps  made  it  possible  for 
the  people  to  venture  out  of  doors,  even  though  these 
lights  shot  their  beams  through  the  character  for 
"  old  age "  which  adorns  their  glass  sides  ;  a  police 
system,  which  was  more  effective  than  anything 
hitherto  known,  might  have  been  a  helpful  object- 
lesson  for  the  future  had  foreigners  lived  obedient  to 
it ;  the  macadamizing  of  certain  streets  soon  began  ; 
the  railway  entered  the  Southern  City  where  the 
'' fire-wheel-cart"  drew  up  before  the  gate  directly 
south  of  the  Palace ;  and  foreign  industries,  called 


144 


DAWN  ON  THE  HILLS  OF  T'ANG 


into  being  by  the  new  regime,  filled  the  minds  of 
the  employed  with  visions  of  wealth.  Subsequently 
the  new  era  of  railroads,  mine  exploitation,  manu- 
factures, and  an  enlarged  commerce,  extended  to 
other  provinces  in  the  Empire.  Coincident  with 
these  changes  there  arose  a  mental  ferment  and  a 
thirst  for  Western  learning  that  has  influenced  the 
educated  classes  as  strongly  as  material  changes  have 
affected  the  populace. 

2.  The  Neio  Officials.  —  Officials  are  known  as 
"  fathers  and  mothers  of  the  people,'^  and  the  phrase 
is  sufficiently  accurate  to  indicate  their  importance 
to  the  New  China.  Under  the  old  order  these 
*' fathers  *"nd  mothers  "  had  been  inaccessible,  super- 
cilious, self-sufficient,  obstructive.  Western  learn- 
ing had  found  in  the  vast  majority  of  them  its 
bitterest  opponent.  To-day  all  this  is  changed — 
externally,  if  not  in  reality.  Even  in  China's  most 
anti-foreign  province,  the  writer  exchanged  calls  and 
mutual  courtesies  with  the  Governor — a  man  who 
became  a  few  weeks  later  President  of  the  Board 
of  Revenue  at  Peking — and  that  in  less  than  four 
years  after  the  Outbreak.  Since  missionaries  are 
widely  distributed  over  the  Empire  and  know  the 
language,  as  few  non-missionaries  do,  these  officials 
often  seek  from  them  information  and  advice  to  aid 
them  in  remaking  the  Old  China.  They  read  omniv- 
orously  all  the  products  of  the  modern  press ;  and 
the  Diffusion  Society  especially  has  sold  them  a  pro- 
digious number  of  books  on  science,  history,  and  re- 
ligion— the  latter  in  less  quantities.  The  vastly  larger 
body  of  literati,  who  are  officials  in  embryo,  are 
even  more  friendly  toward  missionaries  and  often 
take  the  initiative  in  cultivating  friendship.  The 
literati  movement,  which  is  to  be  carried  on  by  the 
Young  Men's  Christian  Association  with  an  initial 
force  of  ten  men,  and  which  has  other  workers  of 
many  years'  standing,  promises  to  be  one  of  the  most 
strategic  factors  in  national  regeneration. 

Yet  one  must  not  forget  the  other  side  of  the 


NEW  CHINA  145 


shield.  That  stipulation  of  the  protocol  which  holds 
officials  responsible  for  outrages  against  foreigners 
occasions  much  friction  and  ill-feeling.  In  some 
parts  of  the  Empire  the  authorities  regard  it  neces- 
sary to  safeguard  themselves  by  keeping  strict  watch 
upon  their  foreign  wards  to  the  detriment  of  the 
missionary  cause.  It  really  amounts  to  espionage ; 
and  where  this  is  not  true,  the  omnipresent  escort  of 
one  or  more  soldiers  is  hardly  congruous  with  the 
missionary's  peaceful  object,  to  say  nothing  of  the 
other  inconveniences  of  constant  attendance.  Litiga- 
tion on  the  part  of  unprincipled  nominal  converts 
causes  official  dismay  and  anxiety,  especially  where 
the  Catholic  right  of  equality  between  missionaries 
and  mandarins  is  insisted  upon  and  used  against  the 
latter. 

3.  The  new  people  are  emboldened  by  the  examples 
of  the  officials  to  show  a  friendliness  to  progress 
which  was  not  common  a  decade  ago.  In  centres 
where  the  Government  has  opened  schools  of  the  neia 
order,  they  are  speedily  filled  with  boys  and  youths 
who  look  upon  such  institutions  as  the  certain  avenue 
to  wealth  or  scholastic  advancement.  'English  is 
particularly  desired,  since  it  most  quickly  leads  to 
lucrative  positions  in  post  offices,  telegraph  and  rail- 
way offices,  and  in  commercial  houses. 

A  larger  lody  of  the  people  seek  positions  not  requir- 
ing Western  education.  Cotton  mills,  silk  filatures, 
soap  factories,  flour  and  rice  mills  employing  West- 
ern machinery,  iron  and  steel  works,  modern  mining 
plants,  the  railway  system,  and  the  multitudinous 
fleet  of  whoezing  tugs  that  thread  China's  waterways, 
cause  multitudes  to  rejoice  in  the  improved  con- 
ditions of  labor  and  the  larger  wage.  Great  as  is  the 
theoretical  animosity  occasioned  by  these  inventions, 
they  are  being  introduced  so  gradually  in  most 
quarters  that  few  outbreaks  have  thus  far  been 
occasioned. 

With  this  better  understanding  of  the  practical 
yalue  of  Western  knowledge  and  civilization  has  come 


146  DAWN  ON  THE  RrLLS  OF  T'ANG 

a  higher  regard  for  foreigners.  One  noTv  hears  only 
rarely  the  old  terms  of  opprobrium.  Thus  in  ex- 
tended journeys  in  various  parts  of  China  lasting 
through  three  months  of  1904,  the  writer  did  not 
once  hear  the  epithets,  '^deviV'  '^foreign  devil,'' 
'Hong-haired  one,"  etc.,  whereas  years  ago  one  rarely 
went  among  the  people  for  a  single  day,  when  they 
were  not  freely  used.  This  means  that  the  mission- 
aries have  an  access  to  the  people  such  as  they  never 
enjoyed  before,  and  are  able  to  exert  a  correspond- 
ingly greater  influence  upon  the  masses. 

4.  The  JVew  Christimis. — While  the  awful  persecu- 
tion of  1900  seemed  at  the  time  most  calamitous  to 
the  native  Church,  statistics  of  grotvth*  for  the  four 
years  following  that  date  prove  that  a  vastly  larger 
number  of  people  are  open  to  the  Gospel  than  before 
the  Boxer  persecution.  In  some  localities,  it  is  true, 
the  memory  of  what  was  suffered  by  the  Christians 
prevents  the  ready  hearing  of  the  message  and  still 
more  the  open  profession  of  Christianity.  This  is 
particularly  true  in  Shan-hsi,  where  one  hears  such 
statements  as  the  following  :  ''  We  must  wait.  We 
believe,  but  this  is  a  religion  that  may  bring  death 
to  its  followers.  We  saw  the  Christians  burning,  and 
some  of  them  burned  for  hours  before  they  died.  It 
is  so  terrible  that  we  cannot  face  it.    We  must  wait."' 

The  testi7ig  of  converts  occasioned  by  the  Uprising 
was  a  misfortune  in  one  sense,  but  it  was  an  even 
greater  good.  Many  of  them  dared  not  face  the  hor- 
rible deaths  that  could  be  avoided  by  recantation  and 
hence  denied  their  Lord, — as  an  even  larger  propor- 
tion of  an  average  church  in  America  would  also 
most  probably  have  done.  For  months  after  the 
missionaries  returned  to  their  posts,  the  painful  proc- 
ess of  excommunication,  suspension,  and  discipline 
filled  their  hearts  with  sadness,  despite  the  fact  that 
so  large  a  majority  had  proved  their  sincerity  by 
their  death   or  by  enduring  patiently   most  bitter 

*  See  comparisons  in  detail  in  the  statistical  table  in  back  of 
t^s  book. 


NEW  CHINA 


147 


persecution.  Yet  in  groups  of  Christians,  some  of 
whose  members  had  proved  weak  and  false,  the 
Christlike  bearing  and  noble  deaths  of  others  made 
an  indelible  and  powerful  impression  upon  the  com- 
munity. Moreover,  the  sufferings  so  commonly  en- 
dured have  made  ordinary  opposition  seem  to  the 
survivors  as  nothing  in  comparison  ;  the  necessity 
laid  upon  them  for  months  to  maintain  the  Christian 
life  and  worship  without  the  aid  of  foreign  pastors 
developed  an  independence  that  would  otherwise 
have  been  uncultivated  ;  and,  better  than  all,  God 
had  proved  His  preciousness  to  them  in  so  conclusive 
a  manner,  that  He  can  never  be  to  the  persecuted 
remnant  anything  other  than  a  blessed  and  power- 
ful reality. 

The  Christians  stand  in  a  peculiarly  important 
relation  to  the  New  China.  They  contain  a  major 
portion  of  those  who  are  best  educated  in  Western 
science,  and  consequently  they  are  in  great  demand 
as  teachers  in  educational  institutions  of  the  Govern- 
ment, as  interpreters  for  governors  and  other  high 
officials,  and  as  assistants  in  offices  of  trust  where 
integrity  is  desired.  In  cases  not  a  few  they  are 
given  carte  blanche  as  to  the  exercise  of  their  religion 
and  even  in  its  propagation.  They  are  also  the 
leaders  in  establishing  local  schools  of  Western  learn- 
ing, and  are  ambitious  to  have  their  children — girls 
as  well  as  boys — educated  and  of  service  to  the 
Church  and  to  society.  Their  attitude  and  influence 
in  the  community  to-day  as  compared  with  conditions 
ten  years  ago  '^differ  as  heaven  and  earth.^^  As 
China's  greatest  need  is  character,  it  is  in  the  Chris- 
tians of  the  Empire  that  one  sees  her  greatest  hope. 

5.  Present  Religious  Statics. — It  may  be  said  that 
the  past  ten  years  have  seen  a  slightly  greater  interest 
in  indigenous  religions  than  had  hitherto  obtained. 
While  one  would  hardly  agree  with  the  extreme  state- 
ment that  Chang  Chih-tung's  book,  "  China's  Only 
Hope,"  had  *'  made  more  history  in  a  shorter  time 
than  any  other  modern  piece  of  literature,  that  it 


148  DAWN  ON  THE  HILLS  OF  T'ANC 

astonished  a  kingdom,  convulsed  an  Empire,  and 
brought  on  a  war,^^  it  is  nevertheless  true,  as  previ- 
ously pointed  out,  that  it  has  had  a  large  influence 
upon  the  modern  trend  of  Chinese  thought.  In 
nothing  is  this  more  important  than  in  the  emphasis 
that  he  lays  upon  religion  of  the  Confucian  type. 
And  it  is  likewise  true  that  the  popular  religions. 
Buddhism  and  Taoism,  have  received  more  attention 
since  they  were  at  the  fore  in  the  Boxer  Uprising. 
This  does  not  mean  that  any  or  all  of  China's  faiths 
exercise  much  practical  influence  upon  individual 
conduct,  nor  can  the  Chinese  yet  be  reckoned  in  the 
same  class  of  seekers  after  religion  so  common  in 
India  and  Japan. 

Friendliness  to  Christianity  is  growing  rapidly. 
"While  the  profession  of  our  religion  is  still  a  prac- 
tical preventive  to  high  office,  and  though  in  the 
government  institutions  it  is  debarred,  men  in  subor- 
dinate offices  are  not  infrequently  Christians,  and 
literati  do  not  hesitate  to  read  Christian  books  and 
*discuss  their  teachings.  Ts^n  Ch^un-hsiian,  re- 
garded by  many  Chinese  as  the  foremost  statesman 
of  the  Empire,  said  to  the  missionaries  when  leaving 
his  post  as  Governor  of  Ssii-ch^uan  :  "The  officials 
of  China  are  gradually  acquiring  a  knowledge  of 
the  great  principles  of  the  religions  of  Europe  and 
America.  And  the  Churches  are  also  laboring  night 
and  day  to  readjust  their  methods  and  to  make 
known  their  aims  in  their  propagation  of  religion. 
Consequently  Chinese  and  foreigners  are  coming  more 
and  more  into  cordial  relations.  This  fills  me  with 
joy  and  hopefulness.  .  .  .  My  hope  is  that  the 
teachers  of  both  countries  [Great  Britain  and  Amer- 
ica] will  spread  the  Gospel  more  widely  than  eve?, 
that  hatred  may  be  banished  and  disputes  dispelled, 
and  that  the  influences  of  the  Gospel  may  create 
boundless  happiness  for  my  people  of  China.  And  I 
shall  not  be  the  only  one  to  thank  you  for  coming  to 
the  front  in  this  good  work.  .  ,  .  May  the  Gospel 
prosper!"     The  Empress  Dowager  has  frequently 


NEW  CHINi.  j^g 


conversed  with  missionary  ladies  who  went  to  the 
Palace  as  interpreters  for  Mrs.  Conger,  wife  of  the 
United  States  Minister,  and  for  two  of  them  she  has 
conceived  a  high  regard  which  manifests  itself  in  Im- 
perial presents  and  in  other  ways.  It  may  be  that 
the  snmptaous  copy  of  the  New  Testament  presented 
to  Her  Majesty  on  her  sixtieth  birthday  is  at  last 
having  its  influence,  just  as  ordinary  copies  of  the 
Scriptures  were  said  to  have  had  in  the  case  of  the 
Emperor  years  ago. 

The  improved  relations  between  the  missionary 
body  and  the  officials  is  well  illustrated  by  the  follow- 
ing extract,  found  in  the  report  for  1904  of  the  Dif- 
fusion Society:  "A  very  remarkable  proof  of  the  in- 
creasing  confidence  in  the  wissiofiary  is  afforded  by 
what  happened  in  Shan-tung  this  year.  The  mis- 
sionaries there  invited  the  officials,  the  leaders  of 
Confucianism,  Buddhism,  and  Taoism  and  other  re- 
ligious sects,  to  a  conference  to  consider  how  to  re- 
vive religion  in  China.  To  the  surprise  of  many, 
over  thirty  mandarins  and  about  a  hundred  of  the 
leaders  of  all  religions  attended  and  took  a  very  active 
and  friendly  part  in  the  whole  discussion,  without  a 
single  note  of  discord.  One  of  the  gentry,  a  non- 
Christian,  advocated  that,  as  missionaries  were  experts 
in  religion,  they  should  be  asked  to  superintend  this 
work  in  the  new  government  schools!  The  mission- 
aries in  Shan-tung,  too,  were  invited  to  elect  three 
of  their  members,  of  age,  experience,  and  influence,  to 
meet  the  Covernor  of  the  province,  now  Acting- Vice- 
roy of  Nanking,  and  to  consider  the  best  methods 
of  preventing  misunderstandings  between  Christian 
missions  and  the  authorities.  The  Governor,  who  is 
one  of  the  most  intelligent  and  friendly  mandarins 
in  the  Empire,  also  said  that  he  would  be  glad  to 
have  copies  of  the  New  Testament  to  present  to  his 
subordinates  so  that  they  may  better  understand  the 
aim  of  Christians.^' 

China's  Pressing  Needs. — 1.  General  enlighten- 
ment is  imnerative,  if  China  is  to  make  large  prog- 


I^o  DAWN  ON   THE  HILLS  OF  T'ANG 

ress.  The  masses  are  superstitions  and  under  the 
spell  of  the  dead  ;  consequently  they  oppose  those  who 
come  to  bring  them  the  spiritual  fruits  of  Christian- 
ity. Moreover,  ignorance  and  superstition  stand  in 
the  way  of  mine  exploitation,  China's  great  national 
asset,  as  the  people  fear  the  wrath  of  the  dragon  if 
they  intrude  upon  his  realm,  and  so  they  suffer  ma- 
terial loss.  Ignorance  of  economic  laws  imposes 
heavy  and  unnecessary  burdens  upon  millions,  as 
witness  their  advocacy  of  the  tool  in  opposition  to 
the  machine.  Ignorance  of  sanitary  laws  and  of 
medicine  costs  the  nation  millions  of  lives  every 
year. 

2.  To  remedy  this  lack  of  general  knowledge,  the 
rulers  suggest  education  of  the  modern  sort,  and 
surely  there  is  an  imperative  need  for  this.  For 
some  time  now  the  Empress  Dowager  has  been  em- 
phasizing the  importance  of  schools  and  colleges, 
and  in  a  multitude  of  large  cities  they  have  sprung 
up  like  mushrooms.  Those  of  primary  grade  are 
often  free,  and  even  in  some  of  the  normal  and  col- 
legiate institutions,  tuition  is  nominal  or  entirely  re- 
mitted, while  the  expense  of  board  is  partly  borne  by 
the  provincial  authorities.  Technical,  military,  and 
naval  schools  also  attract  the  youth  of  China  by  the 
certainty  of  future  lucrative  employment,  even  when 
the  expense  of  education  is  not  wholly  met  by  the 
Government. 

While  knowledge  is  thus  brought  within  reach  of 
many,  the  teaching  force  and  regulations  are  far  from 
satisfactory.  In  a  recent  volume,  written  by  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Han-lin  and  endorsed  by  several  of  the 
highest  officials,  is  found  this  statement :  '*  There  is 
an  Imperial  University,  but  it  only  provides  officials 
who  offer  the  usual  sacrifices.  There  are  no  students 
there.  For  example,  concerning  the  sciences  of 
acoustics,  light,  chemistry,  and  electricity,  there  are 
Directors  of  Education  who  do  not  know  what  the 
names  mean.  To  think  that  we  have  been  a  civilized 
state  for  4^000  years  and  heve  reached  this  pass!" 


NEW  CHINA  151 


Another  weakness  of  China's  higher  institutions  is 
the  requirement,  insisted  upon  in  most  colleges, 
against  the  protest  of  the  foreign  Ministers  at  Pe- 
king, that  students  shall  pay  homage  to  Confucius,  a 
ceremony  most  objectionable  to  Christians.  This  is 
likely  to  cause  some  of  the  best  foreign  educators  to 
hold  aloof  from  government  colleges,  as  the  with- 
drawal of  President  Hayes  from  the  Shan-tung  Uni- 
versity proved ;  and  it  will  surely  prevent  Christian 
students  from  entering  them,  unless  the  quasi-idola- 
trous ceremonies  are  made  optional,  as  in  the  Pao- 
ting  Fu  College. 

The  educational  demand  constitutes  Christianity's 
great  opportu7iity .  Hitherto  nearly  all  the  Western 
education  of  the  Empire  has  been  received  in  Chris- 
tian schools  and  colleges  —  according  to  Arthur 
Smith  ninety-nine  hundredths  of  the  modern  schools 
were  missionary — and  they  thus  started  under  the 
new  regime  with  a  presumption  in  their  favor. 
Moreover,  the  missionaries  are  more  disinterested 
friends  of  China  and  of  her  advancement  than  any 
other  class  of  men  from  the  "West.  They  are  men  of 
known  integrity,  and  while  they  teach  Christianity, 
many  a  Confucian  official  sends  his  sons  to  Christian 
schools  for  the  reason  that  the  moral  restraints  im- 
posed upon  the  students  are  valued  most  highly. 
Then,  too,  the  men  on  their  faculties  are  scholars 
and  masters  of  the  English  language,  which  just  now 
is  a  great  desideratum. 

But  it  will  be  argued  that  at  present  the  educa- 
tional system  of  China  is  following  after  Japanese 
models,  and  that  as  Japan  is  an  Oriental  nation  whose 
example  is  well  worth  imitating,  education  would 
better  be  left  to  Japan.  In  support  of  such  a  position 
one  might  quote  the  remarks  of  the  Japanese  Consul- 
General  at  Shanghai,  made  in  1904,  that  Japan  had 
sent  seventy  professors  to  China  at  the  request  of 
the  Chinese  Government  and  that  others  have  been 
invited  by  the  Chinese  Government  without  the  ap- 
pointment of  the  Japanese.      The   Consul-General 


153 


DAWN  ON  THE  HILLS  OF  T'ANG 


also  remarked  that  some  5,000  Chinese  students  were 
then  pursuing  their  studies  in  Japan.  Since  that 
time  there  has  been  a  slight  reaction  against  depend- 
ence upon  Japanese  instruction.  Chinese  students 
complain  that  Japan's  use  of  China's  written  lan- 
guage does  not  prove  satisfactory  because  the  order 
of  words  is  often  different ;  and  when  that  is  not  the 
case,  familiar  characters  are  used  in  unusual  senses 
and  in  a  way  to  mislead.  A  further  objection  to  being 
under  Japanese  tuition,  either  in  Japan  or  in  China, 
is  that  they  are  learning  from  a  learner — copying  a 
copy,  and  that  in  one  most  important  direction,  the 
learning  of  English,  Japanese  mispronunciation  and 
false  idiom  make  the  study  almost  useless.  In  con- 
sequence many  students  have  returned  to  China, 
either  to  go  thence  to  Occidental  countries  for  further 
education,  or  else  to  place  themselves  under  foreign 
tuition.  Aside  from  these  considerations,  it  is  to  be 
remembered  that  Japanese  educators  now  in  China 
and  those  likely  to  come  thither  for  a  similar  purpose 
are  not  only  not  Christians,  but  they  are  advocates  of 
the  entire  exclusion  of  Christianity  from  schools  and 
colleges.  The  moral  element  in  education  is  thus 
likely  to  be  left  out,  and  an  Empire  which  already 
has  the  name  of  being  atheistic  will  become  still  more 
devoid  of  religion. 

Just  at  present  the  most  widely  used  agents  in  re- 
moving ignorance  are  the  press  and  those  behind  it. 
An  idea  of  the  character  of  works  issued  by  secular 
publishers  may  be  gained  from  a  paper  presented  be- 
fore the  China  Student  Club  in  May,  1904.  In  it 
Mr.  Darroch  analyzes  the  production  of  Shanghai 
native  presses  of  recent  date.  Among  the  1,100 
publications  noted  are  60  volumes  on  the  science  of 
education,  90  histories,  40  books  on  geography,  60  on 
government,  40  on  law,  30  on  political  economy,  70 
on  mathematics,  60  on  literature,  40  on  philosophy, 
70  on  health,  120  on  the  art  of  war,  20  on  astronomy, 
and  30  books  of  travel.  These  are  bought  by  the 
more  highly  educated,  and  the  same  is  true  of  many 


NEW  CHINA  1^3 


of  the  publications  of  the  Diffusion  Society.  Other 
publications  of  the  latter  and  many  of  those  sold  by 
the  various  tract  societies  are  intended  for  the  en- 
lightenment of  Christians  and  of  those  whose  edu- 
cation is  limited.  In  no  country  at  the  present 
moment  has  literature  the  opportunity  that  it  enjoys 
in  China. 

3.  China's  greatest  need  is  that  of  a  new  heart. 
As  China's  missionary  Nestor,  Griffith  John,  so  truly 
says:  ''What  the  Chinese  need  above  all  else,  and 
what  they  must  have  if  they  are  ever  to  attain  to  real 
greatness,  is  moral  and  spiritual  life.  But  where  is  * 
this  life  to  be  found  ?  Surely  not  in  Confucianism. 
Confucius  was  a  good  man  and  one  of  the  world's 
greatest  sages,  but  this  life  it  is  not  in  his  power  to 
give.  Christ  alone  is  the  bestower  of  this  life,  and 
Christ  alone  can  save  China."  In  a  similar  vein 
Dr.  Arthur  Smith  writes :  ''  China  has  many  needs. 
She  needs  new  intellectual  life  of  every  description  in 
every  fibre  of  the  body  politic.  But  she  needs  still 
more  a  new  moral  and  physical  life,  without  which  a 
merely  intellectual  renaissance  will  be  full  of  deadly 
perils.  Every  renovating  force  from  within  has  long 
been  exhausted  and  more  than  exhausted.  Her 
religions,  her  nature  worship,  her  hero  worship,  her 
ethical  traditions,  are  lifeless  and  spent.  Commerce, 
science,  diplomacy,  culture,  civilization,  she  must 
have  in  ever-increasing  measure ;  but  apart  from 
Christianity  they  are  a  Pandora  box  of  potential 
evils.  Aside  from  Christianity  there  is  no  visible 
hope  for  China.  With  it,  after  age-long  slumbers 
she  will  awake  to  a  new  life  in  a  new  world." 

The  Golden  Opportunity. — 1.  The  foregoing 
chapters  have  shown  what  a  rich  prize  China  is. 
Mineral,  agricultural,  industrial  wealth  are  hers  to  a 
degree,  that  is  true  of  no  other  land.  Her  people 
have  an  enduring  and  expansive  power  that  has  stood 
the  test  of  more  than  four  thousand  years  of  honor- 
able history,  and  their  activity  and  efficiency  outside 
of  China  make  them  more  to  be  dreaded  than  any 


154 


DAWN  ON  THE  HILLS  OF  T'ANG 


other  race  or  dozen  races  of  to-day.  If  Chinese 
religions  are  powerless  to  regenerate  life  and  develop 
strong  characters,  they  are  at  least  highly  ethical  and 
pure  and  thus  furnish  a  foundation  upon  which  to 
build  that  is  vastly  better  than  is  found  in  India,  the 
cradle  of  two  of  Asia's  great  religions.  And  that  the 
Chinese  are  capable  of  deep  spirituality  and  of  un- 
dying devotion  to  their  newly  found  Savionr,  such 
saints  as  Pastor  Hsi  and  the  Meng  brothers,  and  the 
martyred  host  of  the  year  1900  abundantly  testify. 
What  nuggets  of  pure  gold  the  Church  may  find  in 
Chinese  mines,  the  most  widely  known  woman 
traveller  of  the  world,  Mrs.  Isabella  Bird  Bishop, 
thus  describes  :  *'  These  converts  live  pure  and  hon- 
est lives,  they  are  teachable,  greedy  of  Bible  knowl- 
edge, generous  and  self-denying  for  Christian  pur- 
poses, and  so  anxious  to  preserve  the  purity  of  their 
brotherhood  that  it  wonld  be  impossible  for  such 
abuses  as  disfigured  the  Church  at  Corinth  to  find  a 
place  in  the  infant  churches  of  China.  Above  all, 
every  true  convert  becomes  a  missionary,  and  it  is  in 
this  spirit  of  propagandism  that  the  hope  of  the 
future  lies.  After  eight  and  a  half  years  of  journey- 
ings  among  Asiatic  peoples,  I  say  unhesitatingly  that 
the  raw  material  out  of  which  the  Holy  Ghost  fash- 
ions the  Chinese  convert,  and  ofttimes  the  Chinese 
martyr,  is  the  best  stuff  in  Asia."  And  there  are 
possibilities  of  400,000,000  such  Christians  in  China's 
open  and  inviting  provinces  to-day  ! 

3.  If  the  Church  is  regardless  of  this  golden  op- 
portunity, other  forces  certainly  are  not.  Inventions, 
commerce,  politics,  immorality,  are  pressing  in  to 
capture  the  most  numerous  and  virile  race  of  the 
world.  Though  mission  boards  may  lag  behind  at 
this  time  when  the  Empire  is  in  a  state  of  flux, 
ready  to  receive  the  moulding  influence  of  foreign 
hands  and  minds,  keen  Japan,  with  less  than  50,000,- 
000  people  to  further  her  designs,  is  carrying  on  a 
most  active  propaganda  in  all  that  will  make  her 
ancient  neighbor  vastly  more  materialistic  than  she 


NEW  CHINA  155 


now  is.  Nor  does  she  forget  religion.  In  the  capital 
of  the  Imperial  Province,  the  writer  found  a  Japan- 
ese missionary  sent  thither  by  his  fellow-Christians 
to  aid  in  forwarding  the  Christian  canse  in  China  ; 
and  in  the  heart  of  the  Empire  he  visited  a  provincial 
capital  where  three  representatives  of  Buddhism  sent 
by  their  Japanese  co-religionists  had  established  a 
mission. 

3.  To  save  China  from  herself  and  from  external 
influences  hostile  to  her  best  life  and  truest  develop- 
ment, a  host  of  strong  missio7iaries  is  needed.  The 
Chinese  language  is  so  difficult,  the  adaptability  to 
native  customs  and  ideas  that  are  so  essential  to  suc- 
cess is  so  hard  to  cultivate,  the  absence  of  quick  re- 
ligious responsiveness  is  so  discouraging,  the  oppo- 
sition of  friends  of  the  inquirers  is  so  poAverful,  the 
multitudes  needing  Christian  ministry  are  so  over- 
whelmingly numerous,  that  the  strongest,  wisest, 
most  versatile,  and  most  spiritual  young  man  or 
woman  need  have  no  fear  but  that  every  talent  will 
have  opportunity  for  fullest  exercise.  But  what,  then, 
of  those  Christians  who  do  not  possess  these  qualities 
in  high  degree  ?  They  too,  are  sorely  needed.  Some 
of  the  most  fruitful  workers  in  China  are  persons 
whose  Chinese  is  halting  and  imperfect,  but  whose 
life  speaks  eloquently  of  the  love  of  God  evidenced  by 
love  for  His  needy  children.  If  they  are  not  wise 
they  are  wondrously  winsome.  In  general,  those 
who  question  their  ability  to  satisfy  the  demands  of 
China  service  should  remember  the  developing  power 
of  a  great  work.  One  of  the  Empire's  wisest  mis- 
sionaries. Dr.  Gibson,  says  on  this  point  :  **  On  the 
foreign  field  the  missionary  for  the  most  part  stands 
almost  alone.  At  the  best  he  is  one  of  a  very  small 
body  who  are  jointly  responsible  for  all  the  varied 
departments  of  service  which  the  time  calls  for.  It 
is  theirs  also  to  watch  the  course  of  events,  to  recog- 
nize the  signs  of  the  times,  to  make  new  departures 
and  start  out  new  lines  of  work  as  necessity  arises. 
Each  man,  therefore,  feels  called  upon  to  bring  out 


IS6 


DAWN  ON  THE  HILLS  OF  T'ANG 


the  very  best  and  utmost  that  is  in  him  ;  and  many 
men  have  discovered  on  the  foreign  field,  to  their  own 
surprise  and  to  the  surprise  of  others,  powers  and 
capacities,  both  mental  and  spiritual,  of  whose  ex- 
istence they  were  not  previously  aware/' 

4.  That  the  foregoing  estimate  of  the  present  and 
prospective  greatness  of  China  and  of  the  import- 
ance of  hastening  to  her  aid  is  not  extreme,  a  feiu 
opinio7is  of  those  who  are  competent  to  speak  are 
quoted  as  samples  of  a  great  volume  of  corroborative 
evidence.  Long  ago,  on  his  lonely  island  of  exile. 
Napoleon  gave  his  estimate  of  the  coming  importance 
of  the  Empire  in  the  pregnant  sentence,  "  When 
China  is  moved,  it  will  change  the  face  of  the  globe." 
An  English  authority  of  our  own  times.  Sir  Lepel 
Griffin,  counted  the  Chinese  in  the  list  of  ''  the 
three  mighties  "  of  the  world's  future,  when  he  wrote 
of  them,  "  This  mysterious  race,  .  .  .  with  the 
Anglo-Saxons  and  the  Russians,  will  divide  the  earth 
a  hundred  years  hence.''  In  a  similar  strain  the 
great  Church  historian,  Neander,  said  years  ago  of 
their  relation  to  the  Kingdom  of  God,  "  It  is  a  great 
step  toward  the  Christianization  of  our  planet,  if 
Christianity  gains  an  entrance  into  China."  And 
Dr.  Smith,  who  knows  the  Empire  and  its  inhabit- 
ants as  does  no  other  foreigner  perhaps,  writes  after 
working  there  for  more  than  a  generation :  '^  On 
account  of  its  mass,  its  homogeneity,  its  high  intel- 
lectual and  moral  qualities,  its  past  history,  its  pres- 
ent and  prospective  relations  to  the  whole  world,  the 
conversion  of  the  Chinese  people  to  Christianity  is 
the  most  important  aggressive  enterprise  now  laid 
upon  the  Church  of  Christ.  .  .  .  Money,  labor, 
prayer,  lavished  upon  the  redemption  of  the  great 
Chinese  Empire  in  the  end  will  yield  ampler  returns 
than  can  be  looked  for  in  any  other  land." 

Statistics  and  Their  Prophecy. — The  forego- 
ing considerations,  which  are  so  full  of  encourage- 
ment, are  re-enforced  by  data  derived  from  the  work 
of  the  four  years  following  the  Boxer  Uprising.    De- 


NEW  CHINA  157 


spite  the  fact  that  thousands  of  Christians  were  killed 
and  that  a  large  number  were  untrue  to  their  Chris- 
tian profession,  the  rate  of  increase  of  the  native 
Church  has  been  remarkable. 

1.  Leading  statistical  items  found  in  Appendix  E 
are  the  following  :  Total  number  of  missionaries  at 
the  beginning  of  1904,  3,107,  of  whom  1,374  were 
men  and  1,733  were  women — a  gain  of  thirteen  per 
cent,  since  1900  ;  native  workers  of  both  sexes,  8,313, 
a  gain  of  thirty  per  cent.;  communicants,  131,404, 
as  against  112,808  in  1900 — a  gain  of  seventeen  per 
cent. ;  number  of  stations  occupied  by  missionaries, 
including  duplicates,  765 — the  actual  number,  not 
counting  any  twice,  was  405 — a  gain  of  seventeen  per 
cent.;  outstations  3,666 — a  gain  of  forty-eight  per 
cent.;  day-school  scholars  had  increased  twenty-two 
per  cent,  to  43,275  ;  institutions  higher  than  day- 
schools  had  increased  sixty-two  per  cent,  to  275  with 
7,283  students.  There  were  seventy-two  boards  hav- 
ing their  own  foreign  workers  in  the  field,  besides 
other  important  societies  organized  in  the  Empire 
itself  but  having  no  paid  workers.  While  America  has 
the  largest  number  of  societies  and  of  missionaries, 
the  latter  number  is  misleading,  since  the  large  ma- 
jority of  members  of  the  China  Inland  Mission  are 
British,  thus  giving  Great  Britain  the  primacy.  The 
province  having  the  largest  number  of  resident 
stations  is  Kuang-tung ;  Fu-chien,  Chiang-hsi,  and 
Che-chiang  follow,  all  with  over  thirty  such  sta- 
tions. 

2.  Some  generalizations  are  to  be  noted.  The 
greatest  percentage  of  gain  was  in  school  work,  and 
higher  education  was  here  in  the  lead.  The  large  in- 
crease in  outstations,  where  native  initiative  predom- 
inates, suggests  the  increasing  interest  taken  by  the 
native  Church  in  self-propagation.  These  nearly 
4,000  centers  of  light  are  the  elements  of  great  hope- 
fulness. The  greatest  percentage  of  increase  in 
the  missionary  force  is  among  ordained  missionaries, 
which  indicates  the  emergence  of  the  Church  from 


158  DAWN  ON  THE  HILLS  OF  T'ANG 

the  early  stages  of  its  history  into  the  more  fnlly  or- 
ganized condition  which  requires  a  fully  equipped 
ministry.  If  the  present  rate  of  increase  holds  for  the 
next  decade,  there  will  be  in  1914,  exactly  a  century 
after  Protestantism's  pioneer,  Robert  Morrison,  bap- 
tized his  first  convert,  194,269  communicants,  and 
with  the  adherents  a  total  Christian  community  of 
322,808.  This,  however,  will  be  greatly  surpassed, 
and  at  least  half  a  million  Protestant  Christians  may 
be  expected  at  that  date,  of  whom  325,000  will  be 
communicants. 

New  China's  Summons. — These  are  already  in 
the  mind,  but  it  may  be  well  to  reiterate  them. 

1.  Obviously  we  hear  the  call  of  the  multitudes. 
Dr.  Paton,  the  Saint  John  of  the  New  Hebrides,  la- 
bored with  his  colleagues  in  a  hostile  territory,  speak- 
ing different  dialects,  and  rightly  has  the  interest  of 
the  world  been  given  to  his  apostolic  story.  Hawaii 
is  a  part  of  Christian  America  to-day,  because  the 
missionaries  of  the  American  Board  gave  their  lives 
to  her  evangelization.  The  Fijis  are  the  Paradise  of 
the  Pacific,  for  the  reason  that  English  Wesleyans 
were  willing  to  dwell  by  cannibal  ovens,  that  they 
might  hold  up  in  the  midst  of  demoniacal  orgies  the 
banner  of  the  Cross.  But  numerically  considered, 
these  island  populations  are  but  as  the  dust  of  the 
balance  compared  with  China's  myriads.  Chinese 
missionaries  have,  within  two  miles  of  their  home,  a 
larger,  and  often  a  more  approachable,  constituency 
than  the  African  missionary  can  reach  by  threading 
scores  of  miles  of  malarious  trails.  The  letters  of  our 
Bibles  have  been  marshalled,  processions  of  various 
ingenious  sorts  have  passed  before  the  spectator^'s 
imagination,  and  in  other  ways  attempts  have  been 
made  to  impress  upon  the  Christian  these  vast  popu- 
lations, but  all  in  vain.  They  are  a  multitude  that 
no  man  can  number,  and  if  anyone  longs  to  preach  to 
the  masses,  China  is  certainly  the  best  field. 

2.  But  on  Sinim's  shores  one  hears  more  than  the 
cry  of  mere  numbers;  they  are  multitudes  who  are 


NEW  CHINA 


159 


suffering  and  dying.  More  millions  go  to  bed  hungry 
each  night  in  China  than  in  any  other  land;  more 
bodies  endnre  torture  under  the  hands  of  Chinese 
quacks  than  under  the  tender  mercies  of  practition- 
ers of  any  other  race;  more  women  suffer  from  the 
limitations  of  their  sex  in  China  than  in  any  other 
heathen  nation;  more  men  pay  the  penalty  of  their 
vices  there  than  anywhere  else;  more  brides  commit 
suicide,  and  more  young  men  sell  themselves  to  be  put 
to  death  in  China  than  can  be  found  in  any  other  clime, 
simply  because  the  sweetness  of  life  is  gall,  and  exist- 
ence is  misery. 

3.  This  summons  is  one  oi pressing  emergency.  The 
Chinese  character  for  world  and  for  generation  is  made 
up  of  three  tens.  While  we  of  tlie  West  speak  of  a 
generation  as  thirty-three  years  in  duration,  this  lin- 
guistic fossil  of  past  millenniums  asserts  that  in  three 
brief  decades  the  Chinese  world  comes  to  birth,  lives 
its  cheerless  life,  and  crumbles  into  dust.  Students 
meet  for  an  hour  to  study  the  needs  of  China;  when 
this  hour  is  over,  1,409  Chinese  have  ceased  to  breathe. 
Missionary  receipts  are  so  insufficient  that  a  board 
postpones  entering  China  until  another  year;  that 
twelve  months'  delay  has  removed  from  the  possibility 
of  ministration  12,342,840  who  sorely  needed  help. 
The  Church  of  God  may  sleep  on  for  thirty  years  more, 
but  when  it  awakes,  China's  four  hundred  millions 
have  passed  beyond  her  power  to  save  them.  If  China 
is  not  evangelized  in  our  generation,  then  the  Church 
can  never  perform  her  duty  to  one-fourth  of  the 
human  race,  unto  which  she  has  been  commanded  to 
minister. 

4.  The  call  of  China's  new  day  is  one  to  heroism. 
To  be  sure,  the  missionary  lives  in  comparative  com- 
fort and  among  a  people  who  are  usually  law-abiding. 
But  count  the  names  on  China's  roll  of  martyrs;  add 
to  the  list  those  whose  minds  have  been  shattered  be- 
cause they  have  lived  in  the  midst  of  hostile  rumors 
and  open  opposition;  remember  that  the  statement 
of  one  veteran  there  is  true  of  many  others — **  I  never 


l6o  ^A  ^^  ON-  THE  HILLS  OF  TANG 

address  a  Chinese  crowd  without  feeling  that  I  am 
standing  on  the  edge  of  a  volcano." 

5.  It  is  a  call  to  ^privilege  also.  While  all  service  is 
this,  there  are  diversities  of  glory.  The  Chinese  mis- 
sionary is  permitted  to  labor  among  one  of  the  most 
remarkable  races  in  history,  and  one  of  the  most  po- 
tent in  its  possible  influence  npon  the  life  of  our 
times.  He  has  to  do  with  the  reconstructive  forces 
of  the  China  that  is  to  be  while  the  nation  is  in  its 
plastic  state,  ready  to  receive  the  impress  of  foreign 
minds  and  hearts.  It  is  also  a  privilege  to  take  the 
place  of  another  person  whom  the  Government  might 
summon  to  aid  in  reconstruction — were  the  mission- 
ary not  there — but  who  would  not  care  for  the  moral 
and  spiritual  welfare  of  men. 

6.  The  present-day  call  is  one  to  men  and  women 
of  deepest  consecration,  A  frequent  Hebrew  word  for 
consecration  means  ^^  with  full  hands."  The  sort 
most  needed  in  the  Chinese  missionary  is  precisely 
this.  Come  to  the  Empire  with  a  practical  prepara- 
tion of  various  sorts;  bring  with  you  the  social  qualities 
of  a  Ricci,  without  his  defects;  store  the  mind  with 
learning  of  varied  scope,  to  meet  the  intellectual 
needs  of  the  day;  come  with  a  love  that  is  undying 
for  those  who  would  perhaps  put  you  to  death,  if 
they  dared;  come  above  all  as  a  manifest  child  of 
God,  endued  with  all  those  spiritual  graces  which 
spring  from  the  Holy  Spirit  and  which  are  daily  re- 
newed in  a  consecrated  closet.  Let  every  power  be 
laid  upon  the  altar,  and  self  be  sunk  in  Christ-like 
service. 


.x-i 


IN  MEMiiKTiiF      _. 
HlJRACE  TRACY  PITKl.S 

yoPN  IN  1SH9AT  PHILADLLPHIA 

GRADUATED 
IS  18S&  AT  EXETER  ACAD"^^'- 

\T  YALE  COLLLGE  IN 
AND  AT  UNION  THEOI.CjC. 
bEMlNABY  !N  IS9(i 
HHEE    YEARS    MlSSIi  )NA  !■  V 
N    CHINA 
LED    AT    Ml-    •>.}- 
N   PAO   TIN' 
F.  BO  XL  PS  ,   . 


TABLET   TO   THE    MEMORY   OF    HORACE    TRACY    PITKIX   AT    YALE 


APPENDIX  A 

Provincial  Divisions. — China  Proper  is  often  called  by  the 
Chinese  The  Eighteen  Provinces,  but  Sheng-ching,  in  southern 
Manchuria,  may  be  considered  as  the  nineteenth  province. 
Formosa,  since  the  recent  war,  belongs  to  Japan,  and  the  only 
other  considerable  island,  Hai-nan,  constitutes  part  of  Kuang- 
tung  province.  A  few  leading  points  concerning  each  of  them 
are  given  below.  For  convenience  in  consulting  the  map,  the 
order  in  which  they  are  taken  up  is  that  of  the  thirteen  which  form 
boundary  provinces — beginning  at  the  northeast  and  passing 
southward,  westward,  northward,  and  eastward  to  the  starting- 
point — and  later  the  six  interior  provinces  are  described. 

1.  Sheng-ching— AfAnent  Capital  (55,985  square  miles,  the  size 
of  Illinois ;  population,  5,000,000,  or  89  per  square  mile,  according 
to  Bevolkerung  der  Erde,  No.  IX. ).  Though  the  most  populous 
part  of  the  original  realm  of  the  Manchus,  this  section  of  Man- 
churia has  always  been  essentially  Chinese,  and  at  the  present  time 
is  being  rapidly  colonized  by  natives  of  the  two  provinces  to  the 
south  of  it.  It  is  one  of  the  most  fruitful  mission  fields  of  China, 
in  spite  of  the  strong  opposition  of  Catholics.  Mukden,  the 
capital,  gives  its  name  to  the  province  and  stands  second  among 
the  cities  of  the  Empire  in  official  rank.  It  is  the  chief  centre  of 
Protestant  missionary  work  and  is  one  of  the  pleasantest  cities 
of  residence  in  China.  The  southern  tongue  of  this  province 
contains  Port  Arthur,  recently  won  from  Russia  by  Japan. 

2.  Chih-lt=T>iTect  Rule  (including  part  north  of  the  Wall, 
115,800  square  miles,  size  of  New  England  States,  Pennsylvania, 
New  Jersey;  population,  20,937,000,  or  172  per  square  mile). 
The  name  arises  from  the  fact  that  "from  this  province  the 
supreme  power  which  governs  the  Empire  proceeds,"  Peking, 
the  capital — regarded  by  travellers  as  the  most  interesting  and 
unique  city  of  Asia — lying  within  its  boundaries.  Mohamme- 
dans are  quite  numerous  in  this  province,  especially  in  the  nortli, 
■where  in  Peking  alone  20,000  families  are  said  to  reside.  Most 
of  the  territory  is  very  flat  and  low-lying  and  consequently  much 
of  the  land  along  the  rivers  is  subject  to  yearly  devastation. 
Tientsin,  its  great  port,  was  the  residence  of  the  far-famed  Li 
Hung-chang,  who  had  for  many  years  been  China's  virtual  ruler. 
It  is  also  an  important  seat  of  Western  educational  institutions. 

3.  Shan-tung =^RBt  of  the  Hills  (55,970  square  miles,  size 
of  Illinois;    population,  38,247,900,  or  683  per  square  mile). 

i6l 


l62  APPENDIX  A 


Shan-tung  has  a  maritime  border  equal  to  more  than  half  its  cir- 
cuit, which  includes  Wei-hai-wei  and  Kiao-chou  Bay,  recently 
taken  possession  of  by  England  and  Germany  respectively.  This 
is  the  Holy  Land  of  China,  as  within  its  borders  were  born  her 
two  greatest  philosophers  and  sages,  Confucius  and  Mencius.  Its 
sacred  T'ai  Shan,  a  mountain  famous  in  Chinese  history  for  4,000 
years,  is  still  annually  visited  by  thousands  of  pilgrims.  A 
French  missionary  mentions  one  such  party  consisting  of  old 
ladies  from  seventy-eight  to  ninety  years  of  age  who  had  travelled 
300  miles  to  secure  a  happy  transmigration  for  their  souls, 
Shan-tung  is  also  a  very  fruitful  mission  field. 

4.  Chiang -su—^\\ ox  Thyme,  a  name  derived  from  the  first 
syllables  of  its  capital  Chiang-nan — known  to  the  West  as  Nan- 
king— and  of  its  richest  city,  Su-chou  (38,600  square  miles, 
size  of  Oklahoma;  population,  13,980,235,  or  362  per  square 
mile) .  Like  the  two  preceding  provinces,  Chiang-su  forms  part  of 
tlie  Great  Plain.  It  has  few  hills  and  is  more  abundantly  watered 
than  any  other  province.  It  contains  one  of  the  former  capitals 
of  the  Empire,  Nanking,  meaning  Southern  Capital,  as  Peking 
signifies  Northern  Capital.  Shanghai,  its  great  semi-foreign 
city,  ranks  first  among  Chinese  ports.  Another  famous  place  is 
Su-chou,  reckoned  by  the  Chinese  as  the  luckiest  place  in  which 
to  be  born,  because  it  has  the  handsomest  people.  Chiang-su 
was  the  main  centre  of  the  great  T'ai  P'ing  rebellion,  Nanking 
being  the  rebel  capital  from  1853  to  1864. 

5.  (7/i(?-cAiawp'  =  Tidal-bore  River,  a  stream  that  gives  its  name 
to  the  province  (36,670  square  miles,  size  of  Indiana;  popula- 
tion, 11,580,692,  or  316  per  square  mile).  It  is  hilly  throughout 
and  is  celebrated  for  its  tea  and  silk.  The  capital,  Hang-chou, 
occupies  a  most  picturesque  site  looking  toward  the  sea,  and  is  so 
beautiful  that  with  its  sister  city,  Su-chou,  it  has  given  rise  to 
the  common  proverb,  "Above  there  is  Paradise,  below  are  Su 
and  Hang."  Were  it  not  for  its  furious  tides  and  famous  bore 
it  would  monopolize  the  eastern  trade  of  China.  It  is  one  of  the 
strongholds  of  Mohammedanism  in  the  Empire.  Che-chiang's 
climate  is  most  healthful,  its  fruit  and  forest  trees  valuable,  its 
manufactures  varied  and  excellent,  and  its  inhabitants  compar- 
able in  wealth,  refinement,  and  learning  with  those  of  other 
provinces. 

6.  ii^w-c7ite7i=Happily  Established  (46,320  square  miles,  some- 
what smaller  than  New  York  State ;  population,  22,876,540,  or 
494  per  square  mile).  Though  the  smallest  in  the  Empire  since 
the  island  of  Formosa  has  been  added  to  Japan,  this  province  is 
the  most  densely  settled,  Shan-tung  and  Ho-nan  excepted.  ''In 
the  general  features  of  its  surface,  the  islands  on  the  coasts,  and 
its  position  with  reference  to  the  ocean  it  resembles  the  region 
east  of  New  Hampshire."  A  German  writer  calls  Fu-chien 
"the  Chinese  Switzerland."  Fu-chou,  its  capital,  and  Amoy 
are  important  places,  both  from  a  commercial  and  missionary 


APPENDIX  A 


163 


point  of  view.  Since  the  Ku-ch'^ng  (Ku-t'ien)  massacre  of 
1895,  missionary  work  in  this  province  has  marvellously  pros- 
pered, proving  anew  that  "the  blood  of  martyrs  is  the  seed  of 
the  Church." 

7.  Kuang-tung z=BToa.d  East  (99,970  square  miles=New  York, 
New  Jersey,  Pennsylvania;  population,  31,805,251,  or  319  per 
square  mile).  The  above  area  includes  the  island  of  Hai-nan. 
From  this  province,  the  birthplace  of  Chinese  Protestant  mis- 
sions, most  of  our  early  knowledge  of  China  was  derived,  as  it 
was  the  only  one  open  to  foreign  trade ;  and  from  it  have  come 
to  America  almost  all  of  our  Chinese  fellow-citizens.  Its  capital, 
Kuang-chou  Fu  (Canton),  is  probably  the  most  populous  city  in 
the  land  and  its  inhabitants  have  been  called  the  Yankees  of 
China.  Hongkong  and  Macao  on  this  coast  are  well-known  pos- 
sessions of  Great  Britain  and  Portugal,  while  thirty  miles  south- 
west from  Macao,  on  the  island  of  St.  John,  Rome's  most  famous 
missionary,  Francis  Xavier,  died  in  1552. 

8.  Kuang-hsi  —  Broad  West  (77,200  square  miles,  size  of 
North  and  South  Carolina  combined;  population,  5,142,330,  or 
67  per  square  mile).  This  most  sparsely  settled  province  has, 
like  Hu-nan,  strenuously  resisted  the  coming  of  missionaries. 
Few  foreigners  have  visited  the  country,  as  its  people  are  poor 
and  its  products  not  very  desirable.  Several  half-subdued  tribes 
live  within  its  boundaries,  who,  though  under  their  own  gover- 
nors, are  subject  to  Chinese  supervision.  On  the  southwest, 
near  Annam,  are  many  descendants  of  Lao  tribes  who  appear  to 
have  come  under  Chinese  authority  because  of  greater  security 
to  life  and  property. 

9.  Ylin-nan  =^  CloM&y  South,  i.e.,  south  of  the  Yiin-ling — 
Cloudy  Mountains  (146,680  square  miles,  size  of  New  England, 
Pennsylvania  and  Virginia  combined;  population,  12,324,574,  or 
84  per  square  mile).  The  greater  part  of  YUn-nan  consists  of 
a  plateau  elevated  a  mile  above  the  sea  and  containing  many 
valley  plains.  It  is  richer  in  minerals  of  various  sorts  than  any 
other  province,  and  its  copper  mines  bid  fair  to  prove  of  value, 
now  that  Japanese  engineers  have  been  employed  to  teach  the 
people  modern  mining  methods.  It  also  supplies  to  China  much 
of  its  medicine,  including  besides  "  herbs  and  roots,  fossil  shells, 
bones,  teeth  and  various  products  of  the  animal  kingdom,"  Colo- 
nel Yule  says  of  this  section  of  the  Empire  that  it  is  an  "Eth- 
nological Garden  of  tribes  of  various  races  and  in  every  stage 
of  uncivilization."  From  1855  to  1873  much  of  the  province 
was  under  the  rule  of  the  Panthays,  a  Mohammedan  tribe. 

10.  Ssu-ch''uan  =  Yo\iv  Streams  (218,480  square  miles,  some- 
what larger  than  the  two  Dakotas  and  Missouri ;  population, 
68,724,890,  or  314  per  square  mile).  This  province,  containing 
a  greater  area  and  population  than  any  other  in  the  Empire, 
derives  its  name  from  four  important  rivers  which  flow  south 
into  the  Yang-tzu.     Its  western  portion  is  a  succession  of  moun- 


164 


APPENDIX  A 


tain-ranges,  sparsely  settled  and  unproductive,  and  inhabited  by- 
barbarous  tribes.  The  triangular  eastern  portion  teems  with 
life  and  is  one  of  the  most  prosperous  sections  of  the  Empire, 
save  in  times  of  unusual  drought  or  flood,  when  robbery,  riots, 
and  even  cannibalism  add  to  the  general  wretchedness.  Its 
brine  wells  and  the  natural  gas  used  to  evaporate  the  salt  are 
famous,  and  have  made  perhaps  the  greatest  demand  on  Chinese 
perseverance  and  ingenuity.  Its  abounding  clouds  and  mists  and 
the  large  quantities  of  silk  and  wax  exported  are  other  distin- 
guishing features.  Catholic  missions  have  flourished  here  for 
many  decades  and  recent  Protestant  effort  has  proved  very  suc- 
cessful, in  spite  of  occasional  outbreaks  and  the  destruction  of 
mission  property. 

11.  Kan-su  =  Voluntary  Reverence — derived,  like  Chiang-su, 
from  the  names  of  two  leading  cities  (125,450  square  miles, 
somewhat  larger  than  New  Mexico  ;  population,  10,385,376,  or  82 
per  square  mile).  Kan-su  is  second  in  size  and  next  to  the  low- 
est in  sparseness  of  population  among  the  provinces.  Except  in 
the  eastern  part,  it  is  little  else  than  "  a  howling  wilderness  of 
sand  or  snow."  As  its  central  portion  commands  the  passage 
into  Central  Asia,  it  is  of  great  strategic  importance  to  the  Em- 
pire. This  province  was  seriously  affected  by  the  great  Moham- 
medan rebellion  led  by  Yakub  Beg  and  quelled  by  General  Tso  in 
1877.  Williams  thus  writes  of  this  conquest :  "  During  the  early 
years  of  the  campaign  it  appears  that  the  soldiers  were  made  to 
till  the  ground  as  well  as  construct  fortifications.  The  history 
of  the  advance  of  this  '  agricultural  army  '  would,  if  thoroughly 
known,  constitute  one  of  the  most  remarkable  achievements  in 
the  annals  of  any  modern  country. " 

12.  Shen-hsi  =  Western  Defiles  (75,270  square  miles,  size  of 
Nebraska;  population,  8,450,182,  or  111  per  square  mile).  This 
purely  agricultural  province  is  remarkable  because  of  containing 
Hsi-an  Eu,  the  capital  of  the  Empire  for  more  than  2,000  years. 
It  is  in  that  city  that  the  famous  Nestorian  Christian  Tablet  was 
erected.  It  ranks  next  to  Peking  in  importance,  and  the  valley 
of  the  Wei  River,  in  which  it  stands,  has  been  more  closely  con- 
nected with  the  fortunes  of  the  Chinese  race  than  any  other  por- 
tion of  China. 

13.  Shan-hsi  =W est  of  the  Hills  (81,830  square  miles,  size  of 
Kansas;  population,  12,200,456,  or  149  per  square  mile).  More 
than  half  this  area  is  a  plateau,  elevated  more  than  a  mile  above 
sea-level,  and  constituting  a  vast  coal-field.  Iron  of  great  purity 
is  also  very  abundant,  so  that  here  are  probably  found  the  most 
remarkable  coal  and  iron  regions  of  the  world.  It  has  been 
estimated  that,  at  the  present  rate  of  consumption,  Shan-hsi 
could  supply  coal  to  the  entire  globe  for  thousands  of  years.  It 
is  further  remarkable  as  being  the  original  seat  of  the  Chinese 
people,  and  for  sending  out  into  the  Empire,  and  even  into 
Japan  and  America,  a  multitude  of  shrewd  bankers.    The  people 


APPENDIX  A 


165 


in  general,  however,  are  great  opium-eaters  and  are  poor.  Fam- 
ine is  frequent,  owing  to  lack  of  moisture.  In  the  north  rises 
the  sacred  mountain  of  the  Buddhists,  Wu-t'ai  Shan,  a  popular 
resort  for  the  Mongols  of  the  north  and  west.  Mission  work  is 
actively  prosecuted  in  the  southern  half  of  the  province. 

14.  Ho-nan  =  South  of  the  River,  t.«.,  the  Yellow  River 
(67,940  square  miles,  size  of  Missouri ;  population,  35,316,800, 
or  520  per  square  mile).  Leaving  the  provinces  lying  on  China's 
boundary,  we  take  up  those  of  the  interior.  Some  of  the  most 
fertile  parts  of  the  Great  Plain  lie  within  Ho-nan,  and  for  that 
reason  and  because  of  its  central  position,  it  was  anciently 
known  as  the  Middle  Flowery  Land  and  later  as  the  Middle 
Kingdom.  This  is  historic  territory,  and  from  the  earliest  times 
has  been  the  scene  of  feudal  and  imperial  strife  and  of  literary 
triumphs  as  well.  On  this  plain  communication  is  largely  de- 
pendent on  the  wheelbarrow,  some  of  them  with  sails,  to  which 
Milton  refers  in  the  lines  : 

"  The  barren  ijlains 
Of  Sericana,  where  Chineses  drive 
With  sails  and  wind  their  cany  waggons  light." 

15.  Anrhui  =  Peace  and  Plenty — coming  from  the  names  of 
two  principal  cities  (54,810  square  miles,  larger  than  Wisconsin ; 
population,  23,670,314,  or  432  per  square  mile).  Though  its 
southern  half  contains  most  productive  soil  and  a  great  quantity 
of  tea  is  produced,  the  province  suffered  so  unspeakably  during 
the  T'ai  P'ing  rebellion  that  years  will  still  be  required  before  it 
regains  its  former  prosperity.  Baron  von  Richtofen  writes: 
"  The  exuberant  fertility  of  the  soil  in  the  lower  portions  of 
the  province  is  not  excelled  by  anything  I  have  seen  in  temper- 
ate climates.  ...  I  have  walked  for  miles  through  fields 
of  hemp,  the  stalks  of  which  were  from  eleven  to  thirteen  feet 
high." 

16.  Chiang-hsi  =  West  of  the  River  (69,480  square  miles, 
comewhat  larger  than  the  State  of  Missouri ;  population,  26,532,- 
125,  or  382  per  square  mile).  This  mountainous  province  is  said 
to  resemble  in  sections  the  north  counties  of  England.  Within 
its  borders  were  the  great  porcelain  manufactories  of  the  Sung 
dynasty,  which  as  recently  as  1850  employed  a  million  workmen 
and  still  supply  all  the  fine  ware  used  in  the  country.  The  Vale 
of  the  White  Deer,  on  the  western  side  of  Lake  P'o-yang,  is  a 
favorite  place  of  pilgrimage  for  Chinese  literati,  as  in  this  vale 
Chu  Hsi,  the  great  philosopher  and  commentator  on  Confucius, 
lived  and  taught  in  the  twelfth  century. 

17.  ^M-^«t=  North  of  Lake  [Tung-t'ing]  (71,410  square  miles, 
size  of  North  Dakota;  population,  35,280,685,  or  492  per  square 
mile).  A  plain  constitutes  a  large  part  of  this  province,  and  an- 
other noticeable  feature  is  the  Han  River,  flowing  from  its  north- 
western boundary  to  the  Yang-tzu.     At  this  junction  lies  a  trio  of 


I66  APPENDIX  A 


cities,  Han-k'ou,  Wu-ch'ang  and  Han-yang,  which  are  of  great  im- 
portance commercially  and  otherwise.  It  is  to  Han-k'ou  that  the 
first  great  trunk  line  railroad  has  been  constructed  from  Peking. 
Some  of  the  most  magnificent  scenery  in  the  world  is  found  in  the 
Yang-tzu  gorges  between  I-ch'ang  and  the  Ssu-ch'uan  border. 
In  some  portions  the  narrowed  river  runs  over  rapids,  tlirough 
canyons,  the  walls  of  which  rise  to  a  height  of  more  than  a  thou- 
sand feet.  While  its  southwestern  prefecture  has  an  illiterate 
population,  it  was  so  powerful  a  factor  in  early  and  feudal  his- 
tory that  native  scholars  regard  it  very  highly. 

18.  ^M-Ma»=South  of  Lake  [Tung-t'ing]  (83,380  square  miles, 
somewhat  larger  than  Kentucky  and  Tennessee  combined ;  popu- 
lation, 22,169,673,  or  266  per  square  mile).  Mainly  a  country 
of  hills,  which  segregate  the  people  into  small  communities,  its 
population  has  a  reputation  for  violence  and  rudeness,  especially 
the  boat  people  and  the  inhabitants  of  the  southern  portion.  On 
the  other  hand,  Hu-nan  has  an  enviable  reputation  for  its  men  of 
letters,  and  the  inhabitants  in  many  sections  are  more  prosperous 
than  those  of  other  provinces.  A  vast  anthracite  and  bituminous 
coal-field,  as  extensive  as  that  of  Pennsylvania,  is  a  source  of 
prospective  wealth.  This  province  has  been  the  hot-bed  of  anti- 
foreign  sentiment,  and  the  instigator,  through  its  scurrilous 
publications,  of  the  anti- Christian  riots.  Only  recently  have 
missionaries  been  allowed  to  labor  there,  and  already  some  have 
sealed  their  testimony  with  their  blood. 

19.  Kuei-chou  =  Noble  Province  (67,160  square  miles,  size  of 
the  two  Virginias;  population,  7,650,282,  or  114  per  square  mile). 
In  spite  of  its  name,  this  province  "is  on  the  whole  the  poorest 
of  the  eighteen  in  the  character  of  its  inhabitants,  amount  of  its 
products,  and  development  of  its  resources."  Malaria,  caused 
by  stagnant  water  and  impure  wells,  and  the  rude  races  of 
Miao-tzii  have  brought  Kuei-chou  into  disrepute.  Yet  it  claims 
to  possess  the  largest  quicksilver  deposits  in  the  world,  and  pro- 
duces an  abundance  of  coarse  silk. 


APPENDIX  B 

Prominent  Events  of  the  Historic  Dynasties. — Instead 
of  attempting  to  thread  the  wearisome  mazes  of  Chinese  history, 
only  a  few  outstanding  facts  concerning  the  principal  dynasties 
will  be  given. 

1.  Though  the  first  two  of  the  historical  dynasties  do  not 
wholly  deserve  the  name,  there  are  facts  connected  with  the 
earlier  one  that  should  be  mentioned.  Yii  the  Great,  the 
founder  of  the  Hsia  dynasty,  is  the  hero  of  an  early  Chinese 
flood — probably  an  unprecedented  overflow  of  the  Yellow  River. 
While  we  need  not  believe  that  "Yii  was  9.2  cubits  high,"  nor 
that  "at  that  time  heaven  rained  down  gold  three  days,"  we 
must  believe  that  he  possessed  rare  skill  as  a  hydraulic  engineer. 
With  him  came  a  change  in  the  principle  of  succession  to  the 
throne,  which  thenceforth  was  to  be  hereditary  within  the  reign- 
ing family.  Then  also  arose  the  feudal  state — Yii  divided  his 
realm  into  nine  principalities — which  existed  during  three  dynas- 
ties until  255  b.c.  This  system  was  much  like  that  prevailing 
in  Europe  during  the  Middle  Ages. 

2.  The  third  dynasty^  and  the  longest  on  the  throne,  the 
Chou,  not  only  boasted  of  its  great  men.  King  Wu,  its  founder, 
Duke  Chou,  and  China's  three  great  philoHophers,  Lao-tzu, 
Confucius,  and  Mencius,  but  it  was  the  time  when  new  emphasis 
was  laid  on  the  five  relations  of  society,  when  fines  leading  to 
bribery  became  common,  when  the  seal  character  was  invented, 
and  when  the  state  of  morals  sunk  from  bad  to  worse  in  spite 
of  the  persistent  efforts  of  the  Empire's  greatest  reformers. 
During  this  period  the  Tartars  began  those  predatory  incursions 
that  were  later  to  prove  so  serious  a  menace. 

3.  Succeeding  the  Chou  came  the  Ch^in  dynasty.  The  feudal 
state  of  Ch'in  had  been  prominent  for  centuries,  and  toward 
the  close  of  the  preceding  dynasty,  when  seven  principalities 
contended  for  the  supremacy,  Ch'in  was  victorious.  Though 
the  family  occupied  the  throne  for  less  than  fifty  years,  it  was  at 
this  time  that  the  Great  Wall  was  completed,  the  books  burned 
and  scholars  slaughtered  or  exiled,  and  the  feudal  states  fused 
into  a  truly  imperial  mass.  The  Empire  under  this  dynasty 
included  nearly  all  the  territory  now  known  as  China  Proper. 

4.  An  honored  designation  of  the  Chinese  to-day  is  Sons  or 
Men  of  Han,  a  name  derived  from  the  Han  dynasty^  which, 
with  the  Eastern  and  Later  Han,  reigned  two  centuries  before 

167 


I68  APPENDIX  B 


the  Christian  era,  and  somewhat  longer  after  it.  This  is  the 
formative  period  of  Chinese  polity  and  institutions,  the  time 
when  the  development  of  commerce,  arts,  and  literature — espe- 
cially history  and  philosophy — advanced  with  rapid  strides,  and 
when  good  government,  based  on  a  penal  code,  was  established. 
The  system  of  competitive  examinations  for  office  began  with 
the  founder  of  the  Han,  and  this  is  another  reason  why  this 
dynasty  has  been  the  most  popular  in  Chinese  history.  Buddhism 
was  officially  introduced  into  the  Empire  during  the  reign  of  the 
sixteenth  Han  emperor, 

5.  The  period  of  the  San  Kuo,  or  three  warring  states  of  the 
third  century,  has  been  made  very  famous,  not  because  of  its 
intrinsic  importance,  but  by  reason  of  a  notable  historical  novel, 
"  The  History  of  the  Three  States,"  which,  like  Scott's  writings, 
"  has  impressed  the  events  and  actors  of  those  days  upon  the 
popular  mind  more  than  any  history  in  the  language. " 

6.  During  the  300  years  following  a.d.  620,  occurs  one  of  the 
most  illustrious  periods  in  China's  remarkable  past.  The  T'-ang 
dynasty  is  distinguished  for  having  seen  the  introduction  of 
Nestorian  Christianity  and  Mohammedanism,  for  being  the 
Golden  Age  of  Chinese  poetry,  and  for  its  territorial  expansion, 
ao  that  Korea  became  a  national  possession  on  the  east,  and  Per- 
sia, in  the  remote  west,  asked  assistance  of  the  Middle  Kingdom. 
Southern  China  dates  its  civilization  and  incorporation  into  the 
Chinese  rule  from  the  days  of  the  glorious  T'angs. 

7.  When  Europe  was  experiencing  its  darkest  midnight,  in 
the  decades  preceding  the  dread  millennial  year,  the  splendors  of 
the  Sung  dynasty  burst  upon  the  Orient.  If  the  T'ang  writers 
had  been  poets,  those  of  Sung  might  be  called  philosophers  and 
representatives  of  China's  Augustan  Age  of  Literature ;  at  least 
it  was  at  this  time  that  Chu  Hsi  flourished,  and  a  host  of  other 
authors  who  had  begun  to  inquire  into  the  nature  and  use  of 
things.  One  result  of  such  inquiry  and  discussion  was  the  un- 
successful trial  of  socialistic  principles.  "  It  is  under  the  Sung 
dynasty  that  the  language  '  is  supposed  to  reach  its  acme,  to  have 
become  complete  in  all  its  formal  and  material  equipment,  hav- 
ing everything  needful  to  make  it  an  effective  instrument  for  ex- 
pressing the  national  mind;'  and  works  on  philosophy  of  great 
and  permanent  value  were  produced."  For  more  than  a  hundred 
years  preceding  their  dethronement  the  Sung  emperors  were 
harassed  beyond  measure  by  the  incursions  of  the  Chins,  the 
ancestors  of  the  present  Manchu  dynasty.  They  at  one  time 
held  the  territory  north  of  the  Yellow  River,  and  even  penetrated 
to  the  banks  of  the  Yang-tzii. 

8.  A  little  more  than  600  years  ago,  after  an  independent  ex- 
istence of  more  than  3,000  years,  the  Yuan  or  Mongol  dynasty 
brought  the  Chinese  under  their  first  foreign  domination.  "  That 
vivacious  gossip  and  prince  of  travellers,  Marco  Polo,"  has  made 
this  dynasty  most  fully  known  in  his  story  of  the  famous  Kublai 


APPENDIX  B  169 


Biian,  who  deepened  and  lengthened  the  Grand  Canal.  Professor 
Douglas  thus  writes  concerning  Kublai :  "  Never  in  the  history 
of  China  was  the  nation  more  illustrious,  nor  its  power  more 
widely  felt,  than  under  his  sovereignty.  ...  At  this  time 
his  authority  was  acknowledged  from  the  Frozen  Sea  almost  to 
the  Straits  of  Malacca.  With  the  exception  of  Hindustan, 
Arabia,  and  the  westernmost  parts  of  Asia,  all  the  Mongol 
princes,  as  far  as  the  Dnieper,  declared  themselves  his  vassals, 
and  brought  regularly  their  tribute." 

9.  With  the  overthrow  of  the  Mongols,  the  throne  once  more 
reverted  to  the  Chinese,  and  the  Ming  or  Bright  dynasty  ruled 
the  Empire  for  nearly  three  centuries.  The  first  Ming  emperor, 
the  son  of  a  laboring  man,  soon  won  all  hearts  by  catering  to  the 
higher  classes  through  the  promotion  of  literature  and  the  estab- 
lishment of  libraries  in  great  cities,  and  by  a  lavish  distribution 
of  salt  to  the  poorer  classes.  The  temporary  occupation  of  Nan- 
king as  the  capital,  repairs  on  the  Great  Wall,  the  coming  of  the 
Portuguese,  and  the  arrival  of  the  Jesuit  missionaries  were 
events  of  importance  in  this  dynasty,  as  also  the  framing  of  a 
code  of  laws  that  has  been  the  basis  of  subsequent  administra- 
tion. Northern  border  invasions  increased  in  violence  in  the 
latter  part  of  this  period,  and  internal  rebellion  led  to  the  capture 
of  Peking  by  a  rebel  leader,  and  the  suicide  of  the  Emperor. 
In  despair,  a  Chinese  general  in  the  northeast  besought  the  assist- 
ance of  the  Manchus,  with  the  result  that  the  rebellion  was 
quelled,  and  the  further  result  that  the  Manchu  camel  refused 
to  leave  the  tent  into  which  he  had  been  encouraged  to  thrust  his 
nose. 

10.  Thus  it  happened  that  the  present  Ta  ChHng  or  Pure 
dynasty  came  from  Manchuria,  on  the  northeast,  into  China, 
and  have  remained  its  foreign  rulers  for  more  than  two  hundred 
and  fifty  years,  since  1644.  Under  the  nine  Ch'ing  emperors 
China  has  gradually  emerged  from  her  haughty  seclusion  of 
ages,  and  is  perforce  taking  her  place  in  the  great  family  of 
nations.  Some  of  the  important  events  marking  the  reigns  of 
this  dynasty  are  the  early  educational  work  and  the  imperial 
surveys  of  the  Catholic  missionaries,  the  splendid  literary  monu- 
ments left  by  the  famous  Emperor,  K'ang  Hsi,  the  extension  of 
power  in  the  west  and  northwest,  the  wars  with  Russia,  England, 
and  France,  and  with  Mohammedan  rebels,  the  pseudo-Christian 
T'ai  P'ing  rebellion,  and  the  inroads  since  1897  of  Western 
Powers.  The  most  marked  characteristic  of  last  century's  his- 
tory, 80  far  as  the  Kingdom  of  God  is  concerned,  is  the  begin- 
ning and  rapid  spread  of  Protestant  missions  throughout  the 
Eighteen  Provinces  and  Manchuria. 


APPENDIX   C 

pIST  OF  MISSIONARY  SOCIETIES  LABORING  IN  CHINA 


The  following  list  is  alphabetical  only  in  the  sense  that  the 
black-faced  initials,  chosen  to  represent  the  longer  society  names, 
are  alphabetically  arranged.  The  full  name  of  the  society  fol- 
lows the  initials,  and  in  tlie  case  of  Continental  organizations, 
both  the  original  name  and  a  translation  of  the  same  are  given. 
Societies  auxiliary,  or  closely  related,  to  those  mentioned  in  this 
list  are  entered  under  those  to  which  they  are  so  related  unless 
they  are  wholly  independent.  The  nationality  and  date  of  en- 
trance on  work  in  China  are  indicated  within  marks  of  paren- 
thesis. 

JUL  American  Advent  Mission  Society  (United  States,  1897). 

Has  workers  in  An-hui  and  Chiang-su  provinces. 
/LBCFM    American  Board  of  Commissioners  for  Foreign  Mis- 
sions (United  States,  1830). 
Has  workers  in  Chih-li,  Fu-chien,  Hongkong,  Kuang- 
tung,  Shan-hsi,  and  Shan-tung  provinces. 
/LBMU      American  Baptist  Missionary  Union  (United  States, 
1843). 
Has  workers  in  Ch^-chiang,  Hu-pei,  Kuang-tung, 
and  Ssu-ch'uan  provinces. 
A.BS  American  Bible  Society  (United  States,  1876). 

Has  workers  in  Chiang-su,  Chih-li,  Hu-pei,  Kuang- 
tung,  and  Ssu-ch'uan  provinces. 
AEPM       Allgemeiner     evangelisch-protestantischer    Missions- 
verein,  "  General  Evangelical  Protestant  Mis- 
sionary Society  "  (Germany,  1885). 
Has  workers  in  Shan-tung  province. 
AFFM       American  Friends'  Board  of  Foreign  JMissions  (United 
States,  1890). 
Has  workers  in  Chiang-su  province. 
ANCM       American  Norwegian  (Lutheran)  China  Mission  (United 
States,  1899). 
Has  workers  in  Ho-nau  and  Hu-pei  provinces. 
B  Evangelische    Missions-Gesellschaft,    Basel,   "Evan- 

gelical  Missionary  Society,  Basel"  (German; 
headquarters  in  Switzerland,  1852). 
Has  workers  in  Hongkong  and  in  Kuang-tung  prov- 
ince, 

170 


APPENDIX  C 


lit 


BCMS        Bible  Christian  Home  and  Foreign  Missionary  Society 
(Great  Britain,  1885). 
Has  workers  in  Yiin-nan  province. 
BF  Berliner  Frauenverein   fiir  China,  "  Berlin  Ladies' 

Society  for  China  " ;  also  called  Berlin  Found- 
ling House  (Germany,  1850). 
Has  workers  in  Hongkong. 
BFBS        British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society  (Great  Britain). 

Has  workers  in  Chiang-hsi,  Chiang-su,  Chih-li,  Hong- 
kong, Kuang-hsi,  Kuang-tung,  Manchuria,  Shan- 
tung, Ssu-ch'uan,  and  Yiin-nan  provinces. 
BFSS         British  and  Foreign  Sailors*  Society  (Great  Britain, 
1895). 
Has  workers  in  Chiang-su  province. 
BMS  Baptist  Missionary  Society  (Great  Britain,  1859). 

Has  workers  in  Chiang-su,  Shan-hsi,  Shan-tung,  and 
Shen-hsi  provinces. 
Bnl  Gesellschaft  zur  Beforderung  der  evangelischen  Mis- 

sionen  unter  den  Heiden,  "  [Berlin]  Society  for 
the  Promoting  of  Evangelical  Missions  among 
the  Heathen  "  (Germany,  1882). 
Has  workers  in  Kuang-tung  and  Shan-tung  provinces. 
BZM  Baptist  Zenana  Mission  (Great  Britain,  1893). 

Has  workers  in  Shan-hsi,  Shen-hsi,  and  Shan-tung 
provinces. 
0A>  Christian  and  Missionary  Alliance  (United  States,  1890). 

Has  workers  in  An-hui,  Chiang-su,  Hu-nan,  Hu-pei, 
Kan-su,  and  Kuang-hsi  provinces. 
CBK  Mission  to  the  Chinese  Blind  (Great  Britain,  1888). 

Has  workers  in  Chih-li  province. 
CCC  Canton  Christian  College  (United  States). 

Has  workers  in  Kuang-tung  province. 
CEZMS      Church  of  England  Zenana  Missionary  Society  (Great 
Britain,  1884). 
Has  workers  in  Fu-chien  province. 
CIK  China  Inland  Mission  (International,  1865). 

Finnish  Free  Church  Mission  (1890). 
German  China  Alliance  Mission  (1889). 
Norwegian  Mission  in  China  (1894). 
Scandinavian  China  Alliance  Mission  (1891). 
Swedish  Holiness  Union  (1890). 
Swedish  Mission  in  China  (1887). 
Has   workers   in  An-hui,    Che-chiang,    Chiang-hsi, 
Chiang-su,  Chih-li,  Ho-nan,  Hu-nan,  Hu-pei,  Kan- 
su,   Kuei-chou,    Shan-hsi,    Shan-tung,    Shen-hsi, 
Ssii-ch'uan,  and  Yiin-nan ;  also  in  Burma. 


lya  APPENDIX  C 


CM.  Christian    Missions,    commonly    called    "Brethren" 

(Great  Britain,  1885). 
Northwest  Kiangsi  Mission. 
Has  workers  in  Che-chiang,  Chiang-hsi,  Chih-li,  Hu- 
pei,  and  Shan-tung  provinces. 
CMS  Church  Missionary  Society  for  Africa  and  the  East 

(Great  Britain,  1844). 
Has  workers  in  Ch^-chiang,  Chiang-su.  Fu-chien, 
Hongkong,  Hu-nan,  Kuang-hsi,  Kuang-tung,  and 
Ssu-ch'uan  provinces. 
OP  Board  of  Missions  and  Church  Erection,  Cumberland 

Presbyterian  Church  (United  States,  1898). 
Has  workers  in  Hu-nan  province. 
08FM        Church  of  Scotland  Foreign  Mission  Committee  (Great 
Britain,  1878). 
Church  of    Scotland  Women's  Association   for 
Foreign  Missions. 
Has  workers  in  Hu-pei  province. 
DBMC       Deutsche   Blindenmission   in   China,  in  Hildesheim, 
"  German  Blind  Mission  "  (Germany). 
Has  workers  in  Kuang-tung  province. 
DH  Danske  Missionsselskab, ' '  Danish  Missionary  Society  " 

(Denmark,  189G). 
Has  workers  in  Manchuria. 
FCM8        Foreign  Christian  Missionary  Society  (United  States, 
1886). 
Has  workers  in  An-hui,  Chiang-su,  and  Ssu-ch'uan 
provinces. 
FFMA       Friends'  Foreign  Mission  Association  (Great  Britain, 
1886). 
Has  workers  in  Ssu-ch'uan  province. 
FMB  Finska  Missions-Siillskapet,  "  Finnish  Missionary  So- 

ciety" (Finland,  1901). 
Has  workers  in  Hu-nan  (?)  province. 
H8E  Hauges  Synodes  Kinamissionsmode,  "  Hauges  Synod's 

China  Mission  "  (United  States,  1892). 
Has  workers  in  Ho-nan  and  Hu-pei  provinces. 
IBM  Independent  Baptist  Missionary  Movement,  also  called 

Gospel  Mission  (United  States,  1892). 
Has  workers  in  An-hui,  Chiang-hsi,  and  Shan-tung 
provinces. 
Independent. 

These  workers  are  in  An-hui,  Ch^-chiang,  Chiang- 
hsi,  Chiang-su,  and  Fu-chien  provinces. 
KBI  John  G.  Kerr  Refuge  for  the  Insane  (United  States). 

Has  workers  in  Kuang-tung  province. 
LBM  Lutheran  Brethren  Mission. 

Has  workers  in  Hu-pei  province. 


APPENDIX  C  «i73 


LM8  London  Missionary  Society  (Great  Britain,  1807). 

Has  workers  in  Chiang-su,  Chih-li,  Fu-chien,  Hong- 
kong,   Hu-nan,    Hu-pei,    Kuang-tung,    and   Ssu- 
ch'uan  provinces. 
XCC  Missionary  Society  of  the  Methodist  Church  [in  Canada] 

(Canada,  1891). 
Woman's    Missionary  Society  of  the   Methodist 
Church  in  Canada. 
Has  workers  in  Ssu-ch'uan. 
MX!  Missionary  Society  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church 

(United  States,  1847). 
Methodist  Publishing  House,    supported   jointly   by 
HE  and  HES. 
Has    workers    in    An-hui,    Chiang-hsi,    Chiang-su, 
Chih-li,  Fu-chien,  Hu-pei  (native  workers),  Shan- 
tung, and  Ssu-ch'uan  provinces. 
mS  Board  of  Missions  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church, 

South  (United  States,  1848). 
Methodist   Publishing   House,    supported   jointly  by 
ME  and  MES. 
Woman's  Foreign  Missionary  Society  of  the  Meth- 
odist Episcopal  Church,  South. 
Has  workers  in  Che-chiang  and  Chiang-su  provinces. 
ICHO  Methodist  New  Connexion  Missionary  Society  (Great 

Britain,  1859). 

Has  workers  in  (3hih-li  and  Shan-tung  provinces. 

XFW        Woman's  Foreign  Missionary  Society  of  the  Methodist 
Protestant  Church  (United  States,  1900). 
Has  workers  in  Hu-nan  province. 
UBS  National  Bible   Society  of  Scotland   (Great  Britain, 

1863). 
Has  workers  in  Chiang-su,  Chih-li,  Fu-chien,  Hu- 
pei,  and  Ssu-ch'uan  provinces. 
HLK  Norske  lutherske  Kinamissionsforbund,  "Norwegian 

Lutheran  China  Alliance  "  (Norway,  1894). 
Has  workers  in  Hu-pei  province. 
KIC  Norske  Missionsselskab,  "Norwegian  Missionary  So- 

ciety" (Norway). 
Has  workers  in  Hu-nan  province. 
PCC  Foreign    Missions    Committee    of   the    Presbyterian 

Church  in  Canada  (Canada,  1888). 
Has  workers  in  Ho-nan  and  Kuang-tung  provinces. 
POE  Foreign    Missions    Committee    of    the    Presbyterian 

Church  of  England  (Great  Brita-.,  1847). 
Has  workers  in  Fu-chien  and  Kuang-tung  provinces. 
PCI  Foreign  Mission  of  the  Presbyterian  Church  in  Ireland 

(Great  Britain,  1869). 
Has  workers  in  Chih-li  province  and  in  Manchuria. 


i74 


APPENDIX  C 


PE  Domestic  and  Eoreign  Missionary  Society  of  the  Prot- 

estant Episcopal  Church  in  the  United  States 
of  America ;   known  in  China  as  The  American 
Church  Mission  (United  States,  1835). 
Has  workers  in  An-hui,  Chiang-hsi  (native  workers), 
Chiang-su,  Hu-nan  (native  workers),  and  Hu-pei 
provinces. 
PN  Board  of  Foreign  Missions  of  the  Presbyterian  Church 

in  the  U.  S.  A.  (United  States,  1844). 
Has   workers    in    An-hui,    Che-chiang,    Chiang-su, 
Chih-li,  Hu-nan,  Kuang-tung,  and  Shan-tung  prov- 
inces. 
PNZ  Presbyterian  Church  of  New  Zealand  Mission  (New- 

Zealand). 
Has  workers  in  Kuang-tung  province. 
PS  Executive  Committee  of  Foreign  Missions  of  the  Pres- 

byterian Church  in  the  United  States  (Southern) 
(United  States,  1867). 
Has  workers  in  Che-chiang  and  Chiang-su  proyincea. 
BCA  Board  of  Foreign  Missions  of  the  Reformed  Church 

in  America  (United  States,  1842). 
Has  workers  in  Fu-chien  province. 
BCIJS        Board  of  Commissioners  for  Foreign  Missions  of  the 
Reformed  Church  in  the  United  States  (United 
States). 
Has  workers  in  Hu-nan  province. 
SM  Rheinische  Missionsgesellschaft,  "  Rhenish  Missionary 

Society  "  (Germany,  1847). 
Has  workers  in  Kuang-tung  province. 
EP  Synod  of  Reformed   Presbyterian  Church  in  North 

America  (United  States,  1897). 
Has  workers  in  Kuang-tung  province. 
SAFM        Scandinavian  American  Christian  Free  Mission  (United 
States,  1888). 
Has  workers  in  Kuang-tung  province. 
SAM  Scandinavian   Alliance    Mission    of    North  America 

(United  States,  1891). 
Has  workers  in  Kan-su  and  Shen-hsi  provinces. 
SBC  Foreign  Mission  Board,  Southern  Baptist  Convention 

(United  States,  1845). 
Has  workers  in  Chiang-su,  Kuang-hsi,  Kuang-tung, 
and  Shan-tung  provinces. 
BBM  Siillskapet  Svenska  Baptist  Missionen,  "  Swedish  Bap- 

tist Missionary  Society"  (Sweden,  1891). 
Has  workers  in  Shan-tung  province. 
SCM  South  Chih-li  Mission  (United  States). 

Has  workers  in  Chih-li  and  Shan-tung  proTinces. 


APPENDIX  C 


175 


8DA  Mission    Board   of   Seventh-day  Adventists    (United 

States,  1888). 
Has  workers  in  Hongkong  and  in  Fu-chien,  Ho-nan 
and  Kuang-tung  provinces. 
8DB  Seventh-day  Baptist  Missionary  Society  (United  States, 

1847). 
Has  workers  in  Chiang-su  province. 
8EM0        Swedish  Evangelical  Mission  Covenant  of  America 
(United  States,  1890). 
Has  workers  in  Hu-pei  province. 
BMF  Svenska    Missionsforbundet,    "  Swedish    Missionary 

Society"  (Sweden,  1890). 
Has  workers  in  Hu-pei  province. 
SP0C         Church  of  England  Mission,  Diocese  of  North  China ; 
affiliated  with  Society  for  the  Propagation  of 
the  Gospel  (Great  Britain,  1874). 
Has  workers  in  Chih-li  and  Shan-tung  provinces  and 
in  Manchuria. 
UBW         Woman's  Missionary  Association  of  the  United  Breth- 
ren in  Christ  (United  States,  1889). 
Has  workers  in  Kuang-tung  province. 
TEE  Home  and  Foreign  Missionary  Society  of  the  United 

Evangelical  Church  (United  States,  1900). 
Has  workers  in  Hu-nan  province. 
UFA  United  Free  Church  of   Scotland  Foreign  Missions 

(Great  Britain,  1863). 
Has  workers  in  Manchuria. 
UMFO       United  Methodist  Free  Churches,  Home  and  Foreign 
Missions  (Great  Britain,  1864). 
Has  workers  in  Che-chiang  province. 
Unoonneoted. 

These  workers  are  in  Chiang-su,  Shan-hsi,  and  Shan- 
tung provinces. 

USOE         United  Society  of  Christian  Endeavor  for  China  (In- 
ternational). 
Has  workers  in  Chiang-su  province. 
WMS        Wesleyan  Methodist  Missionary  Society  (Great  Brit- 
ain, 1851). 
Has  workers  in  Hongkong  and  in  Hu-nan,  Hu-pei, 
Kuang-hsi,  and  Kuang-tung  provinces. 

Wu  Woman's  Union  Missionary  Society  of  America  for 

Foreign  Lands  (United  States,  1881). 

Has  workers  in  Chiang-su  province. 
YFMS       Yale  Foreign  Missionary  Society  (United  States,  1903). 

Has  workers  in  Hu-nan  province. 


176  APPENDIX  C 


YMCA       Foreign    Department,    International    Committee    of 
Young    Mens    Christian    Associations    (North 
America,  1895). 
Has  workers  in  Chiang-su,  Chih-li,  Hu-pei,  and  Fu- 
chien  provinces,  and  in  Hongkong. 
YWCA      World's  Young  Women's  Christian  Association  (Inter- 
national, 1904). 
Has  workers  in  Chiang-su  province. 
Associations  formed  in  China  for  special  work,  composed  of 
missionaries  connected  with  other  missionary  Bocieties  are  also 
given  here. 

Central  China  Religious  Tract  Society  (1876). 
China  Baptist  Publication  Society. 
China  Missionary  Alliance  (1901). 
Chinese  Tract  Society  (1878). 
Christian  Vernacular  Society  of  Shanghai  (1890). 
Educational  Association  of  China  (1877). 
Kiangsi-Hunan  Tract  Press. 
Medical  Missionary  Society  (1886). 
Methodist  Publishing  House  (1902). 
North  China  Tract  Society  (1882). 
Seaman's  Mission,  Shanghai. 

Society  for  the  Diffusion  of  Christian  and  General  Knowledge 
among  the  Chinese  (1887). 


APPENDIX  D 

PRONOUNCING    INDEX    OF    STATIONS    AND    OF 
CHINESE   WORDS   AND   NAMES 

The  Mission  Stations. — In  order  to  unify  the  various  sys- 
tems of  Romanization  used  by  the  different  societies,  that  of 
Sir  Thomas  Wade,  employed  in  the  body  of  this  book,  is  used 
here  and  on  the  accompanying  map.  A  few  exceptions  are 
made  in  the  case  of  well-known  names,  like  Canton,  Peking, 
Hongkong,  etc.,  and  in  towns  where  the  differences  between 
the  local  pronunciation  and  that  of  Mandarin  are  exceedingly 
marked,  such  cases  being  almost  wholly  confined  to  the  dialect 
regions  of  Fu-chien  and  Kuang-tung.  In  order  to  enable  those 
who  know  only  the  Romanization  of  their  own  society,  the 
spelling  familiar  to  them  will  be  found  in  its  proper  alphabetical 
order  with  a  cross-reference  to  the  Wade  spelling  (printed  in 
Clarendon  type),  where  particulars  concerning  the  work  may  be 
found.  After  the  name  of  the  station,  a  closely  allied  spelling 
is  sometimes  given.  The  letters  following  a  place  name  have 
these  meanings:  F.  indicates  a  city  of  Fu  rank;  T. ,  a  T'ing 
city;  C,  a  Chou  city;  H.,  a  Hsien  city.  After  this  follows 
within  parentheses  the  pronunciation,  then  the  capital  letter  and 
numeral  indicating  the  square  on  the  map  where  the  station  is 
found,  and  immediately  following  the  name  of  its  province. 
Beneath  this  appear  the  Clarendon  initial  letters  indicating  the 
society  or  societies  having  work  in  that  place, — the  significance  of 
the  initials  may  be  learned  from  the  Society  list  of  Appendix  C, — 
the  year  in  which  the  society  began  operations,  enclosed  w.thin 
parentheses,  and  the  missionary  force  laboring  there.  The  data 
for  the  missionary  force  have  been  obtained  from  the  "  Directory 
of  Protestant  Missionaries  in  China,  Japan,  and  Corea,  for  the 
Year  1904,"  published  at  Hongkong.  While  some  errors  have 
been  detected  and  corrected  by  the  author,  it  is  believed  that 
even  though  other  errors  remain,  it  is  as  satisfactory  a  state- 
ment as  to  the  force  on  the  field  at  the  beginning  of  1904  as  can 
be  secured. 

Key  to  the  Pronunciation  here  Used. — Immediately  pre- 
ceding Chapter  I  of  this  volume,  an  approximately  correctkey  of 
the  Wade  system  of  Chinese  Romanization  is  given.  Experience 
with  study  classes  shows  that  a  more  popular,  even  if  less  cor- 
rect, system  of  pronunciation  should  be  furnished.     Accord- 

177 


178 


APPENDIX  D 


ingly,  after  the  Chinese  words  and  proper  names  found  in  this 
Index  follows  witliin  parentheses  the  indication  of  this  easier 
system  of  pronunciation.  The  powers  of  the  various  letters 
within  parentheses  are  given  below.  Any  letters  not  found  in 
the  list  have  their  usual  English  sound. 


a 

as  in  mate. 

er  as  in  over. 

ow 

as  in  now. 

a 

"  "  father. 

g    "  "  game. 

8S 

"  "  hiss. 

a 

"  "  an. 

I     "  "  ice. 

ts 

"  "  mats. 

ds 

"  "  pads. 

i     "  ''  pin. 

u 

"  **  mud. 

e 

"  "  me. 

6     "  "  old. 

ii 

"  French  u, 

e 

"  "  men. 

00  "  "  too. 

or  German  ii. 

Ainoy=Sha-m6n  T.  (Sha-mun).     E5.     Fu-chien. 

LMS  (1844)  4  men,  3  wives,  2  other  women  (1  physician). 

NBS  1  man. 

PCE  (1850)  5  men  (1  physician),  3  wives,  4  other  women. 

RCA  (1842)  5.  men  (1  physician),  3  wives,  5  other  women. 
An-ch*ing  F.   (An-chlng)  E3.     An-hui. 

CIM  (1869)  3  men.  2  wives. 

PE  (1894)   3  men  (1   physician). 
AN-HUI  (An-whe).     This  province  has  workers  of  the  following  societiea 

AA,  CA,   CIM,   FCMS,   IBM,   INDEPENDENT,  ME,  PE,  PN. 
An-j6n=An-ren  (An-riin)  E4.     Chiang-hsi. 

CIM  (1889)  5  unmarried  women. 
An-k*ing,  see  An-ch'ing  Fu,  An-hui. 
An-lu  F.   (An-loo)  D3.     Hu-pei. 

WMS  1  man,  1  wife.    .. 
An-shun  F.,  An-shuen  ("An-shoon)  C4.     Kuei-chou. 

CIM  (1888)  1  man,  l.,wife,  2  other  women. 
An-tung  H.,  An-tong  (An-doong)  E3.     Chiang-su. 

CIM  (1893). 3  women. 
An-tung  H.  (An-doong)  same  as  Sha-ho-tzii  Fl.     Manchuria. 

DM  1  man,   1  wife. 
A-shih  Ho.  Ashiho  (X-sher  Hou),  130  miles  north  of  Kirin.     Manchuria. 

UFS  (1892)  2  men  (1  physician),  2  wives. 


Bhamo,  Chinese  Hsin-chieh  (ShIn-jeSh)  A5. 
CIM  (1875)  1  man,  1  wife. 


Burma. 


Canton =Kuang-chou  F.  (Gooang-j6)  D5.     Kuang-tung. 
ABCFM  (1830)  1  man,  1  wife,  1  other  woman. 
ABS  1  man. 
BFBS  1  man,  1  wife. 
Bnl  (1867)  5  men,  2  wives. 
CMS  (1898)  4  unmarried  women. 
KRI  1  male  physician. 

LMS  (1807)  3  men,  2  wives,  2  other  women. 

PN  (1844)  9  men  (  2  physicians),  7  wives,  8  other  women  (2  physicians). 
PNZ  2  men,  2  wives. 
SAFM  (1890)  1  man,  2  unmarried  women. 


PRONOUNCING  INDEX 


179 


SBC  (1845)  4  men  (I  physician),  4  wives,  3  other  women, 

SDA  1  man,  1  wife,  1  other  woman. 

UBW  (1889)  3  men  (1  physician),  3  wives,  1  other  woman  (physician). 

WMS  7  men  (2  physicians),  4  wives,  1  other  woman. 
Chang-chia  K'ou  (Jang-jea  Ko),  see  Kalgan,  Chih-li. 

Chang  Chih-tung  (Jang  Jer-doong),  name  of  a  famous  viceroy  and  author. 
Chang-chou  F.   (Jang-j6)  E5.     Fu-chien. 

LMS  (1886)  2  men  (1  physician),  1  wife,  2  other  women. 

RCA  (1895)  2  unmarried  women. 
Chang-lao  Hui  (Jang-low  Hooa)  =  Presbyterians. 
Ch'ang-U  H.   (Chang-le)  E2.     Chih-li. 

ME  3  men  (1  physician),  3  wives,  2  other  women  (1  physician). 
Chang-p'u  H.,  Changpu  (Jang-poo)  E5.     Fu-chien. 

PCE  (1874)  3  men  (2  physicians),  3  wives,  3  other  women. 
Ch'ang-sha  F.,  Chang-sha  (Chang-sha)  D4.     Hu-nan. 

CA  3  men,  2  wives,  1  other  woman. 

CIM  (1901)  3  men  (2  physicians),  2  wives,  4  other  women. 

NM  5  men  (1  physician).  3  wives,  1  other  woman. 

UE  2  men,  1  wife,  I  other  woman. 

WMS  1  man,  1  wife. 

YFMS  (1905)  2  men.  1  wife  (physician). 
Ch'ang-shan  H.  (Chang-shan)  E4.     Ch4-chiang. 

CIM  (1878)  2  women. 
Chang-shu    (Jang-shoo)  E4.     Chiang-hsi. 

CIM  (1895)   1   man,   1  wife. 
Ch*ang-shu  H.   (Chang-t;hoo)  F3.    Chiang-su. 

MES  (1890)  1  man,  1  wife. 
Chang-te  F.,  Chang-teh  (Jang-du)  D2.     Ho-nan. 

PCC  (189G)  7  men  (1  phvsician),  4  wives,  5  other  women  (1  physician). 
Ch'ang-te  F.,  Chang  Teh  (Chiing-du)  D4.     Hu-nan. 

CA  1  man,  1  wife,  1  other  woman. 

CIM  (1898)  3  men. 

CP  2  men  (1  physician),  1  wife. 
Chao-ch'6ng  H.  (Jow-chung)  D2.     Shan-hsi- 

CIM  (1901)  2  men. 
Ch'ao-chou  F.   (Chow-j6)  E5.     Kuang-tung. 

ABMU  (1894)  1  man,  1  wife. 

PCE  (1890)  2  men,  (1  physician),  1  wife,  2  other  women, 
Chao-Tong,  see  Chao-t'ung  F.,  Yiin-nan. 
Chao-t'ung  F.   (Jow-toong)  B4,     Yiin-nan. 

BCMS  (1888)  3  men,  2  wives. 
Ch'ao-yang  H.   (Chow-yang)  Fl.     Chih-li. 

PCI  (1902)  1  man. 
Ch^  Chau  F.,  see  Ch'ao-chou  F.,  Kuang-tung. 

CHE-CHIAIfG  (Ju-jeang).     This  province  has  workers  of  the  following  so- 
cieties:   ABMU,  CIM,  CMS,  INDEPENDENT,  MES,  PN,  PS,  UMFC. 
Chefoo  =  Chih-fu  (Jer-foo)  F2.     Shan-tung. 

BFBS  1  man,  1  wife. 

CIM  (1879)  10  men  (1  physician),  9  wives,  19  other  women. 

PN  (1862)  5  men,  4  wives,  5  other  women  (1  physician). 

SPGC  (1874)  2  men,  1  wife. 

UNCONNECTED  1  man,  1  unmarried  woman. 
Ch6n  (jun),  in  place  names  it  means  a  mart. 
Ch*n-chia-kou,  Chen-kia-keo  ( Jun-jea-go) .     Shen-hsi. 

CIM  (1900)  1  man,  1  wife. 
Chfen-chiang,  F.,  Chen-kiang  (Jiin-jeang)  E3.     Chiang-su. 

CIM  (1889)  1  man  (1  physician),  1  wife,  4  other  women. 

ME  1  man,  1  wife,  4  other  women  (2  physicians). 

NBS  1  man. 

PS  (1883)  2  men,  2  wives. 
Ch'6n-chou  F.,  Ch'6n-cheo  (Chun-jo)  E3.     Ho-nan. 

CIM  (1895)  2  women. 
Ch*6n-chou  F.  (Chun-j6)  D4.     Hu-nan. 

CIM  (1898)    1  man. 

CP  1  man  (physician),  1  wife. 


l8o  APPENDIX  D 


MPW  1  unmarried  woman. 

PN  (1904)  2  men  (physician),  1  wife. 

Reus  1  man  (physician),  1  wife. 
Ch6ng  (Jiing),  a  Chinese  surname. 
Ch'6ng  (chung),  in  place  names  it  means  a  town. 
Ch'*ng-ku  H.  (Chiing-goo)  C3.     Shen-hsi. 

CIM  (1887)  2  men,  2  wives. 


Ssfi-ch'uan. 


ABS  1  man. 

BFBS  1  man,  1  wife. 

CIM  (1881)  3  men,  2  wives,  2  other  women. 

MCC  (1891)  4  men  (2  physicians),  3  wives,  8  other  women  (2  physicians). 

ME  5  men,  (1  physician),  3  wives,  1  other  woman. 
Ch6ng-yang-kuan  T.,  Cheng-iang-kuan  (Jung-yang-gooan)  E3.     An-hm. 

CIM  (1887)  1  man. 
Chfcn-yiian  F.,  Chen-iien  (Chun-yuS,n)  C4.     Kuei-chon. 

CIM  (1904)  2  men,  1  wife,  1  other  woman. 
Chfcn-ytian  H.,  Chen-uen  (Jiin-yu5,n)  C2.     Kan-su. 

CIM  (1897)  3  unmarried  women. 
Cheo-kia-k'eo,  see  Chou-chia-k'ou,  Shan-tung. 
Chi  C.  (.16)  E2.     Chih-li. 

LMS  (1888)  5  men  (2  physicians),  5  wives, 
Chi  C.  (Je)  D2.     Shan-hsi. 

CIM  (1891)  1  man,  1  wife. 
Chia-hsing  F.  (Jea-shing)  F3.     Chfe-chiang. 

PS  (1895)  3  men  (1  physician),  3  wives,  2  other  women  (1  physician). 
Chi-an  F.  (Je-an)  E4.     Chiang-hsi. 

CIM  (1891)  1  man,  1  wife,  1  other  woman. 
Chiang  (jeang)=a  river. 
Chiang  C.  (Jeang)  D2.     Shan-hsi. 

CIM  (1898). 
Chiang-ching  H.  (Jeang-jing)  C4.     Ss6-ch'uan. 

CIM  (1902)  1  man,  1  wife. 
Chiang  Chiu,  see  Chang-chou  F.,  Fu-chien. 

CHIANG-HSI  (Jeang-she).     This  province  has  workers  of  the  following  so- 
cieties: BFBS,  CIM,  CM,  IBM,  INDEPENDENT,  ME,  PE  (native  workers). 
CHI ANG-SU  ( Jeiing-soo) .  This  province  has  workers  of  the  following  societies : 

AA,  ABS,  AFFM,  BFBS,  BFSS,  BMS,  CA,  CIM,  CMS,  FCMS,  INDEPEN- 
DENT, LMS,  ME,  MES,  NBS,  PE,  PN,  PS,  SBC,  SDB,  UNCONNECTED, 

USCE,  WU,  YMCA,  YWCA. 
Chiang-yin  H.  (Jeang-yin)  F3.     Chiang-su. 

PS  (1895)  4  men  (phj'sician),  4  wives,  1  other  woman. 

UNCONNECTED  1  man,  1  wife. 
Chiao  C.  Kiao  (Jeow)  F2.     Shan-tung. 

SBM  (1891)  3  men,  3  wives. 
Chia-ting  F.  (Jea-dlng)  B4.     Ssu-ch'uan. 

ABMU  (1894)  3  men,  3  wives. 

CIM  (1888)  2  men,  1  wife. 

MCC  (1892)  5  men  (1  physician),  3  wives,  2  other  women  (1  physician). 
Chia-ying  C.  (J6a-ying)  E5.     Kuang-tung. 

ABMU  (1890)  2  men,  2  wives. 

B  (1883)  3  men  (1  physician),  2  wives. 
Ch'i-cheo,  see  Ch'ih-chou  F.,  An-hui. 
Chieh  C.  (Jggh)  D3.     Shan-hsi. 

CIM  (1895)  1  man,  1  wife,  1  other  woman. 
Chieh-hsiu  H.  (Jeeh-sheoo)  D2.     Shan-hsi. 

CIM  (1891)  3  unmarried  women. 
Chieh-yang  H.  (Jee-yang)  E5.     Kuang-tung. 

ABMU  (1896)  1  man,  1  wife,  2  unmarried  women,  both  physician*. 
Ch'ien  C.  (Cheen)  03.     Shen-hsi. 

CIM  (1894)  1  man,  1  wife,  1  other  woman. 
Chien-ch'ang  F.  (Jegn-chang)  E4.     Chiang-hsi. 

CIM  (1899)  2  men. 
Chien-ch'ang  H.  (Jegn-chang)  E4.     Chiang-hw, 

CM  1  man,  1  wife. 


PRONOUNCING  INDEX  i8i 


Chien-ning  F.  (Jggn-ning)  E4.     Fu-chien. 
CEZMS  3  unmarried  women. 
CIM  (1874)  4  men  (1  physician),  2  wives. 
Chien-p'ing  H.  (Jeen-ping)  E3.     An-hui. 

CIM  (1894)  1  man.  1  wife,  2  other  women. 
Chien-tu  Hui  (Jeen-doo  Hooa)  =  Episcopalians. 
Chien-yang  H.  (Jeen-yang)  E4.     Fu-chien. 

CMS  (1891)  3  unmarried  women. 
Ch'ien-yang  H.  (Cheen-yang)  C3.     Shen-hsu 

CIM  (1897)  2  unmarried  women. 
Chi-fu,  see  Chefoo,  Shan-tung. 
Ch'ih-chou  F.  (Cher-j6)  E3.     An-hui. 

CIM  (1874)  1  man,  1  wife. 
CHIH-LI    (Jer-lg).     This  province  has  workers  of  the  following  societies; 

ABCFM,  ABS,  BFBS,  CBM,  CIM,  CM,  LMS,  ME,  MNC,  NBS,  PCI»  PN, 

SCM,  SPGC,  YMCA. 
Chi-mo  H.  (J6-m6ij)  F2.     Shan-tung. 

Bnl  (1900)  2  men,  1  wife. 
Ch'in  (Chin),  dynastic  name. 
Ch'in  C.  (CWn)  C3.     Kan-su. 

CIM  (1878)  2  men,  1  wife,  2  other  women. 
Chi-nan  F.  (Jg-nS,n)  E2.     Shan-tung. 

PN  (1872)  3  men  (1  physician),  2  wives,  1  other  woman  (1  physician). 
Chinchew,  see  Ch'iian-chou  F.,  Fu-chien. 
Chin-chou  F.,  Chinchow  (Jin-jo)  Fl.     Manchuria. 

PCI  (1891)  1  man,  1  wife,  1  other  woman. 
Ching  C.  (JIng)  C2.     Kan-su. 

CIM  (1895)  1  man.  1  wife,  3  other  women. 
Ch'ing-chiang  H.  (p'u)  (Ching-jeang)  E3.     Chiang-su. 

CIM  (1869)  3  unmarried  women. 

PS  (1887)  4  men  (1  physician),  4  wives. 
Ch*ing-chou  F.  (Ching-jo)  E2.     Shantung. 

BMS  (1877)  7  men  (1  physician),  7  wives. 

BZM  (1893)  4  unmarried  women. 
Ching-hua  (JIng-hooa)  via  Chfin-chiang  F. 

UNCONNECTED   1  man,  1  wife. 
Ching-kiang,  Chin-kiang,  see  Chfen-chiang  F.,  Chiang-su. 
Ch'ing  ming  (chIng  ming),  name  of  Chinese  festival. 
Ching-ning  C.  (Jing-ning)  C2.     Kan-su. 

CIM  (1897)  2  men. 
Ching-shih  (Jlng-sher)  via  Li-chou  (in  Northern  Hu-nan). 

FMS  3  men,  1  wife. 
Ching-tzu  Kuan  (JIng-dsu  Goofin)  D3.     Ho-nan. 

CIM  (1896)  1  man,  1  wife. 
Chin-hua  F.  (Jln-hooS)  F4.     Ch4-chian|:. 

ABMU  (1883)  2  men  (physician),  1  wife,  3  other  women. 

CIM  (1875)  1  man,  1  wife. 
Chi-ning  C.  (Je-ning)  E2,     Shan-tung. 

IBM  2  men,  1  wife. 

PN  (1892)  6  men  (1  physician),  3  wives. 
Chinkiang,  see  Ch6n-chiang  F.,  Chiang-su. 
Ch'in  Shou  (Chin  ShO),  a  Chinese  author. 
Chin-tan  (JIn-dan),  dawn. 

Chin-tan  Chiao  (JIn-dan  Jeow),  name  of  Chinese  sect. 
Chin-ytln  H.  (JIn-yun)  F4.     Ch4-chiang. 

CIM  (1898)  2  unmarried  women. 
Ch'i  ssu  liao  (che  ssu  leow),  "died  from  anger." 
Chiu-chiang  F.  (j6oo-jeang)  E4.     Chiang-hsi. 

BFBS  1  man,  1  wife. 

CIM  (1889)  2  men,  2  wives. 

CM  1  man,  1  wife,  1  other  woman. 

INDEPENDENT  4  unmarried  women. 

ME  3  men,  3  wives,  6  other  women. 
Ch'iung  C.  (Chgoong)  B3.     Ssi-ch'uan. 

CIM  (1902)  2  men,  1  wife. 


i82  APPENDIX  D 


Chiung-chou  F.  (Jeoong-j6)  D5,  6.     Kuang-hing. 

PN  (1885)  3  men  (1  physician),  3  wives,  3  other  women. 
Chong-k'ing,  see  Chung-ch'ing  F.,  Ssu-ch'uan. 
Chou  (Jo),  name  of  a  celebrated  dynasty.      Also  name  of  a  division  of  a 

province  smaller  than  fu  or  t'ing,  and  of  its  capital  city. 
Chou-chia  K'ou  (Jo-jea  Ko)  E3.     Ho-nan. 

CIM  (1884)  2  men,  2  wives. 
Chou-p'ing  H.  (Jo-pIng)  E2.     Shan-tune. 

BMS  (1889)  8  men  (1  physician).  7  wives. 

BZM  (1894)  2  unmarried  women. 
Chowchowfu,  see  Ch'ao-chou  F. 
Ch'u  C.  Chu  Cheo  (Choo)  E3.     An-hui. 

FCMS  (1889)  2  men  (1  physician),  2  wives. 
Ch'U  H.  (Chu)  C3.     Ssu-ch'uan. 

CIM  (1898)  1  man,  1  wife,  3  other  women. 
Ch'uan-chou  F.  (ChuS.n-jo)  E5.     Fu-chien. 

PCE  (1866)  3  men  (1  physician),  2  wives,  5  other  women  (1  physician). 
Chuang-tzu  (Jooang-dsu),  a  Taoist  writer. 
Chu-chi  H.  Chu-Ki  (Joo-je)  F4.     Ch6-chiang. 

CMS  (1894)  2  men,  1  wife. 
ChU-ching  F.  (Jii-jlng)  B4.     Yiin-nan. 

CIM  (1889)  2  men,  2  wives,  2  other  women. 
Ch'u-chou  F.  Ch'u-cheo  (Choo-j6)  E4.     Chft-chiang. 

CIM  (1875)  2  men,  1  woman. 
Ch'ti-chou  F.  (Chii-jo)  E4.     Chfe-chiang. 

CIM  (1872)  1  man,  1  wife. 
Chu  Fu-tzu  (Joo  Foo-dsu),  a  celebrated  Confucian  authority. 
Chu  Hsi  (Joo  She),  same  as  above. 
Ch'un  Ch'iu  (Choon  Cheoo),  one  of  the  "Five  Classics." 
Chung-ch'ing  F.  (Joong-ching)  C4.     Ssfi-ch'uan. 

ABS  1  man. 

CIM  (1877)  4  men  (1  physician),  3  wives,  1  other  woman. 

FFMA  (1890)  8  men  (1  physician),  7  wives,  3  other  women. 

LMS  (1888)  4  men  (2  physicians),  2  wives. 

ME  3  men  (1  physician),  2  wives,  4  other  women. 

NBS  1  man,  1  wife. 
Chung  Hua  Kuo  (Joong  Hooa  Goooii),  "Middle  Flowery  Kingdom." 
Chungking,  see  Chung-ch'ing  F.,  Ssii-ch'uan. 
Chung  Kuo  (Joong  Goooii),  "Middle  Kingdom." 
Chung-ni  (.Toong  ne),  personal  name  of  Confucius. 
Chung-tu  (Joong-doo),  name  of  a  town. 
Ch'ung-yang  H.  (Choong-yang)  D4.     Hu-pei. 

WMS  2  men. 
Chung  Yung  (Joong  Yoong),  one  of  the  "Four  Books." 
Chiin-tzu  j6n  (jiin-dsu  run),  "the  princely  man." 
Ch"U-wu  H.  (Chii-woo)  D2.     Shan-hsi. 

CIM  (1885)  1  man,  1  wife,  1  other  woman. 
Cieng-bau.  Ciong  Bau  E4.     Fu-chien. 

CEZMS  (1897)  3  unmarried  women. 


Dang-seng  E4.     Fu-chien. 

CEZMS  (1893)  2  unmarried  women. 
Dong-si  via  Shanghai. 

INDEPENDENT  1  man,  1  wife. 


Engchhun,  see  Yung-ch'un  C,  Fu-chien. 

Erh  (Ur),=Ear,  Lao-tzu's  surname. 
Erh  Ya  (Ur  Ya),  "Ready  Guide." 


PRONOUNCING  INDEX 


183 


F 

Fa-k'u-m6n  (Fa-koo-mun)  Fl.     Manchuria. 

PCI  (1899)  1  man. 
Fan-ch'6ng  H,  (Fan-chung)  D3.     Hu-pei. 

HSK  (1893)  2  men  (1  physician),  2  wives,  2  other  women. 

LBM  1  man,  1  wile. 

SEMC  (1890)  1  man,  1  wife,  1  other  woman. 
Feng  (fung)  =  phoenix. 
Fftng-chfin  H.  (Filng-jun)  Dl.     Shan-hsi. 

CIM  (1902)  1  man,  1  wife,  1  other  woman. 
Ffing-hsiang  F.,  Feng-siang  (Fijng-sheang)  C3.     Shen-hsi. 

CIM  (1898)  1  man,  1  wife. 
Feng-hua  H.  (Fung-hooa)  F4.     Che-chiang. 

CIM  (18G6)  2  men. 
F6ng-huang  Ch'eng  (Fiing-hooang  Chiing)  Fl.     Manchiiria. 

DM  (1899)  2  men,  1  wife. 
Feng-shui  (fiing-shooa)=:winrl  and  water;  Chinese  geomancy. 
Fo  (F6u)  =  Buddha. 
Foochow,  see  Fu-chou  F.,  Fu-chien, 

Fu  (foo),  name  of  a  portion  of  a  province  and  of  its  capital. 
Fu-ch'iang  H.,  Fu-k'iang  (Foo-cheang)  C3.     Kan-su. 

CIM  (1899)  1  man. 
FU-CHIEN  (Foo-jeen).    This  province  has  workers  of  the  following  societies: 

ABCFM,   CEZMS,   CMS,  INDEPENDENT,  LMS,  ME,   NBS,   PCE,   RCA, 

SDA  (native  workers),  YMCA. 
Fu-ch'ing  H.  (Foo-chlng)  E4.     Fu-chien. 

CMS  2  men  (1  physician),  2  wives,  5  other  women  (1  physician). 

ME  4  unmarried  women  (1  physician). 
Fu-chou  F.,  Fu-cheo  (Foo-jo)  E4.     Chiang-hsi. 

CIM  (1899)  1  man,  1  wife,  1  other  woman. 
Fu-chou  F.  (Foo-jo)  E4.     Fu-chien. 

ABCFM  (1847)  5  men  (1  physician),  5  wives,  10  unmarried  women  (2  phy- 
sicians). 

CEZMS  (1884)  11  unmarried  women  (1  physician). 

CMS  (1850)  8  men  (2  physicians),  5  wives,  11  other  women. 

INDEPENDENT  3  unmarried  women  (2  physicians). 

ME  (1847)  8  men,  8  wives,  14  other  women  (2  physicians). 
Fuh-Chow,  see  Fu-chou  F. 
Fu  Hsi  (Foo  She),  China's  earliest  monarch. 
Fu-kou  H.,  Fu-keo  (Foo-go)  D3.     Ho-nan. 

CIM  (1903)  1  unmarried  woman. 
Fuk-wing  D5.     Kuang-tung. 

RM  1  man,  1  unmarried  woman. 
Fumui  D5.     Kuang-tung. 

Bnl  (1885)  1  man,  1  wife. 
Fu-ning  F.,  Fuh-Ning  (Foo-ning)  F4.     Fu-chien. 

CMS  (1882)  4  men  (2  physicians),  2  wives.  3  other  women. 
Fu-shun  H.,  Fu-shuen  (Foo-shoon)  C4.     Ssu-ch'uan. 

CIM  (1902)  1  man,  1  wife,  1  other  woman. 
Futschukp'ai,  see  Fu-tsuk-phai,  Kuang-tung. 
Fu-tsuk-phai  D5.     Kuang-timg. 

B  (1879)  2  men,  1  wife. 

H 

Hai-ch'ftng  H.  (Hi-chung)  Fl.     Manchuria. 

UFS  (1876)  1  man,  1  wife. 
Hai-nan  (Hi-nan),  island  off  the  coast  of  Kuang-tiing. 
Hai-tan  (Hl-dan)  E4.     Fu-chien. 

CMS  2  unmarried  women. 
Han  (Han),  name  of  river  and  of  dynasty. 
Han-ch'feng  H.  (Han-chung)  D2.     Shen-hsi. 

CIM  (1897)  2  men,  1  wife,  4  other  women. 
Han-ch'uan  H.  (Han-chooan)  D3.     Hu-pei. 

WMS  1  man,  1  wife. 


l84  APPENDIX  D 


Han-chung  F.,  Han-cheong  (Han-joong)  C3.     Shen-hsi. 

CIM  (1879)  3  men,  2  wives. 
Hangchau,  see  Hang-chou  F.,  ChS-chiang. 
Hang-chou  F.,  Hang-cheo  (Hang-j6)  F3.     Ch4-chiang. 

ABMU  (1899)  2  men,  2  wives. 

CIM  (1866)  1  man. 

CMS  (1864)  8  men  (2  physicians),  5  wives,  8  other  women. 

PN  (1859)  3  men,  3  wives,  2  other  women. 

PS  (1867)  3  men,  2  wives,  4  other  women. 
Hangchow,  see  Hang-chou  F.,  Ch6-chiang. 
Han-k'ou  H.  (Han-ko)  D3.     Hu-pei. 

ANCM(1891)  1  woman. 

CIM  (1889)  1  man,  1  wife. 

LMS  (1861)  6  men  (2  physicians),  4  wives,  2  other  women  (1  physician). 

NBS  1  man,  1  wife. 

PE  (1868)  5  men,  3  wives,  2  other  women. 

WMS  6  men  (2  physicians),  4  wives,  3  other  women  (1  physician). 
Hankow,  .see  Han-k'ou  H.,  Hu-pei.^ 

Han-lin  (Han-lin),  Forest  of  Pencils,  the  highest  literary  body  of  China. 
Han-tan  H.  (Han-dan)  D2,     Chih-li. 

SCM  1  man. 
Han-yang  F.  (Han-yang)  D3.     Hu-pei. 

ABMU  (1893)  3  men  (1  physician),  2  wives,  1  unmarried  woman. 

ABS  1  man. 

WMS  2  men,  2  wives,  4  other  women. 
Hfcng-chou  F.,  H6ng  Chow  (Hung-j6)  D4.     Hu-nan. 

PN  (1902)  2  men  (1  physician),  1  wife. 

LMS  2  men  (1  physician),  2  wives. 
Hiau  Kan,  see  Hsiao-kan  H.,  Hu-pei. 
Hing-hua,  see  Hsing-hua  F.,  Fu-chien. 
Hing-Hwa,  see  Hsing-hua  F.,  Fu-chien. 
Ho  (hod)  =  river. 
Ho  C,  (Hou)  D2.     Shan-hsi. 

CIM  (1886)  2  unmarried  women. 
Ho-ching  H.,  Ho-tsin  (Hoii-jing)  D2.     Shan-hsl. 

CIM  (1893)  1  man,  1  wife,  1  other  woman, 
Hoh-cheo,  see  Ho  C,  Shan-hsi. 
Hok-Chiang,  see  Fu-ch'ing  H.,  Fu-chien. 
Ho-k'ou.  Ho-k'eo  (H6u-k6)  E4.     Chiang-hsi. 

CIM  (1878)  3  unmarried  women. 
Hokschuha,  .see  Hok-su-ha,  Kuang-tung. 
Hok-su-ha  E5.     Kuang-tung. 

B  (1886)  3  men,  2  wives. 
HO-NAN  (Hou-nan).     This  province  has  workers  of  the  following  societies: 

ANCM,  CIM,  HSK,  PCC,  SDA. 
Ho-nan  F.  (H6u-nan)  D3.     Ho-nan. 

CIM  (1902)  2  men. 
HONGKONG,  a  British  colony  off  the  coast  of  Kuang-tung.     It  has  workers 

of  the  following  societies:  ABCFM,  B,  BF,  BFBS,  CMS,  LMS,  RM,  SDA, 

WMS,  YMCA. 
Hongkong=Hsiang-chiang  (Shgang-jeSng)  D5.     British  Colony. 

ABCFM  (1883)  1  man  (physician),  1  wife. 

B  (1852)  3  men.  2  wives,  1  other  woman. 

BF  1  man.  1  wife,  2  other  women. 

BFBS  1  man. 

CMS  (1862)  6  men,  3  wives,  6  other  women. 

LMS  (1843)  3  men  (1  physician),  2  wives,  4  other  women  (1  physician). 

RM  2  men,   1  wife. 

SDA  (1888)  1  man,  1  wife. 

WMS  1  man.  1  wife. 

YMCA  (1899)  2  men,  2  wives. 
Hong-tong.  see  Hung-tung  H.,  Shan-hsi. 
Honyen=Ho-yuan  H.  (Hou-yii&n)  D5.     Kuang-tung. 

B  2  men,   1  wife. 
Hoschuwan,  see  Ho-su-wan,  Kuang-tung. 


PRONOUNCING  INDEX  185 


Ho-su-wan  DE5.     Kuang-tung. 

B  (1885)  1  man,  1  wife. 
Hsi  (she)  =  west. 
Hsi  C.  (She)  D2.     Shan-hsi. 

CIM  (1885). 
Hsia  (Shea),  name  of  dynasty. 
Hsiai-cheo,  see  Chieh  C,  Shan-hsi, 
Hsi-an  F.  (She-an)  C3.     Shen-hsi. 

BMS  2  men  (1  physician),  1  wife. 

CIM  (1893)  4  men,  2  wives,  1  other  woman, 
Hsiang-ch'ftng  H,  (Sheang-ching)  D3,     Ho-nan. 

CIM  (1892)  1  man,  1  wife. 
Hsiang-t'an  H.  (Sheang-tan)  D4.     Hu-nan, 

PN  (1900)  3  men  (1  physician),  3  wives,  1  other  woman. 
Hsiang-yang  F.  (Sh§ang-yang)  D3.     Hu-pei. 

SEMC  3  men  (1  physician),  1  wife,  1  other  woman. 
Hsiao-i  H,  (Sheow-e)  D2.     Shan-hsi. 

CIM  (1887)  2  men,  1  wife. 
Hsiao-kan  H.  (Sheow-gan)  D3.     Hu-pei. 

LMS  (1880)  3  men  (1  physician),  2  wives. 
Hsiao-shih  H,  (Sheow-sher)  C4.     Ssfl-ch'uan. 

CIM  (1899)  2  men,  1  wife. 
Hsien  (sheen),  name  of  a  provincial  division  smaller  than  a  fu,  t'ing,  or  chou, 

and  of  its  capital. 
Hsien-chU  H,  (Shegn-ju)  F4,     Ch*-chiang. 

CIM  (1899)  1  man,  1  wife. 
Hsien-yu  H.  (Shegn-yoo)  E4.     Fu-chien. 

CEZMS  3  unmarried  women. 

ME  2  unmarried  women. 
Hsi-hsiang  H.  (She-shgang)  C3.     Shen-hsi. 

CIM  (1895)  2  unmarried  women. 
Hsi-hua  H.  (She-wha)  D3.     Ho-nan. 

CIM  (1899)  2  unmarried  women. 
Hsi-kuo  Fa  (She-gooou  Fa),  name  of  Ricci's  treatise  on  mnemonics. 
Hsin-an  H.  (Shin-an)  D3.     Ho-nan. 

CIM  (1899)  1  man,  1  wife,  3  otker  women. 
Hsin-ch'ang  H.  (Shin-chang)  F4.     Chfe-chiang. 

CIM  (1870)  1  man,  1  wife. 
Hsin-ch'ang  H.  (Shin-chang)  D4.     Chiang-hsi. 

CM  1  man,  1  wife,  1  other  woman. 
Hsin-ch'6ng  H.  (Shin-chung)  F3.     Ch6-chiang. 

PS  (1892)  2  men,  1  wife,  1  other  woman. 
Hsin-ffcng  H.  (Shin-fung)  D4.     Chiang-hsi. 

CIM  (1899)  2  men,  1  wife. 
Hsing-an  F.  (Shing-an)  03.     Shen-hsi. 

CIM  (1898)  1  man,  1  wife. 
Hsing-hua  F.  (Shing-hooa)  E4.     Fu-chien. 

CMS  (1894)  3  men  (1  physician),  3  wives,  2  other  women. 

ME  (1864)  3  men,  2  wives,  3  other  women. 
Hsing-p'ing  H.  (Shing-ping)  C3,     Shen-hsi. 

CIM'(1893)  3  men,  1  wife. 
Hsin-hsing  H.  (Shin-shing)  D5.     Kuang-tung. 

CMS  1  man,  1  wife,  3  other  women. 
Hsi-ning  F.  (She-ning)  B2.     Kan-su. 

CIM  (1885)  2  men,  1  wife. 
Hsin-min-t'un  (Shin-mln-toon)  Fl.     Manchuria. 

PCI  (1899)  2  men  (1  physician),  1  wife. 
Hsin-tien-tzfi  (Shln-deSn-dsu)  C3.     Ssu-ch'uan. 

CIM  (1892)  3  women  unmarried. 
Hsin-yang  C.  (Shin-yang)  D3.     Ho-nan. 

ANCM  (1899)  2  men,  2  wives,  2  other  women. 

SDA  1  man,  1  wife. 
Hsin-yeh  H.  (Shin-ygh)  D3,     Ho-nan. 

HSK  1  man,  1  wife. 
Hsiu-yen  T.  (Sheoo-yen)  Fl.     Manchuria. 

DM  (1898)  1  man,  1  wife. 


l86  APPENDIX  D 


Hail  (Shii),  name  of  distinguished  Catholic  convert. 
HsUan-hua,  Hsuen-hua  F.  (Shuan-hooa)  Dl.     Chih-U. 

CIM  (1902)  1  man.  1  wife. 
HsU-ch'icn  H.  (ShU-cheen)  E3.     Chiang-su. 

PS  (1894)  3  men  (1  physician),  3  wives. 
HsU-chou  F.  (Shii-j6)  E3.     Chiang-su. 

PS  (1897)  3  men  (1  physician).  3  wives. 
Hsii-chou  F.  (Shu-j6)  B4.     Ssu-ch'uan. 

ABMU  (1889)  3  men  (1  physician),  3  wives. 

CIM  (1888)  2  men,  1  wife. 
Hu  (hoo)=lake. 

Hua  Hsia  (Hooa  Shea),  "  Flowery  Hsia,"  a  name  of  China. 
Huai-ch'ing  F.  (Hooi-cWng)  D2.     Ho-nan. 

PCC  2  men  (1  physician),  2  wives. 
Huai-lu  H.,  Huai-luh  (Hool-loo)  D2.     Chih-li. 

CIM  (18S7)  1  man,  1  wife,  2  other  women. 
Huai-yUan  H.  (Hool-yiian)  E3.     An-hui. 

PN  4  men  (I  physician),  3  wives,  1  other  woman. 
Huang  H.  (Hooang)  F2.     Shan-tung. 

SBC  (188.'))  3  men  (1  physician),  3  wives.  2  other  women. 
Huang  Ho  (Hooang  Hou)  =  Yellow  Eiver. 
Huang-kang-shih  =  Huang-kang  H.  (Hooang-gang-sher)  D3.     Hu-pei. 

WMS  2  men. 
Huang  Ti  (Hooang  Dg)  =  Yellow  Ruler,  a  title  of  emperors. 
Huang-yen  H.,  Huang-ien  (Hooang-ygn)  F4.     Chft-chiang. 

CIM  (1896)   1  man. 
Hua  T'o  (Hooa  Tou),  a  famous  Chinese  physician. 
Huchau,  see  Hu-chou  F.,  Ch^-chiang. 
Hu-chou  F,  (Hoo-j6)  F3.     Chfe-chiang. 

ABMU  (1S88)  2  men  (1  physician),  2  wives. 

MES  (1900)  4  men  (1  physician),  3  wives,  1  other  woman. 
Huei-cheo,  see  Hui-chou  F.,  An-hui. 
Huen-iien,  see  Hun-yiian  C,  Shan-hsi. 
Hui-an  H.  (Hoog-an)  E4,  5.     Fu-chien. 

LMS  1  man  (physician),  1  wife,  1  other  woman. 
Hui-chou  F.  (Hoo6-jo)  E4.     An-hui. 

CIM  (187.'))  1  man,  1  woman. 
Hui-hui  Chiao  (popularly  Hooa-hooa  J5ow)=Mohammedanism. 
Hu-k'ou  H.  (Hoo-ko)  E4.     Chiang-hsi. 

CM  1  man,   1  wife. 
HU-NAN  (Hoo-nan).    This  proA-ince  has  workers  of  the  following  societies: 

CA,  CIM,  CMS,   CP,   FMS  (?),  LMS,   MPW,  NM,  PE   (native  workers), 

PN,  Reus,  UE,  WMS,  YFMS. 
Hung  Hsiu-ch'ijan  (Hoong  Shgoo-chuSn),  the  leader  of  the  T'ai  P'ing  rebels. 
Hung-tung  H.  (Hoong-doong)  D2.     Shan-hsi. 

CIM  (1886)  2  men,  1  wife. 
Hun-yUan  C.  (Hoon  yuJin)  D2.     Shan-hsi. 

CIM  (1898)  2  men. 
HU-PEI    (Hoo-ba).     This  province  has  workers  of  the  following  societies: 

ABMU,  ABS,  ANCM,  CA,  CIM,  CM,  CSFM,  HSK,  LBM,  LMS,  ME  (native 

workers),  NBS,  NLK,  PE,  SEMC,  SMF,  WMS,  YMCA. 
Hwai-yuen,  see  Huai-yiian  H.,  An-hui. 
Hwang-Hien,  see  Huang  H.,  Shan-tung. 


lang-cheo,  see  Yang-chou  F.,  Chiang-su. 
lang  Hsien,  see  Yang  H.,  Shen-hai. 
lang-k'eo,  see  Yang-k'ou,  Chiang-hsi. 
I-ch'ang  F.  (E-chang)  D3.     Hu-pei. 

CIM  (1898)  1  man,  1  wife. 

CSFM  (1878)  4  men  (2  physicians),  4  wives,  4  other  women. 

PE  (1889)  2  men,  1  unmarried  woman. 

SMF  (1894)  2  men,  2  wives,  1  other  woman. 


PRONOUNCING  INDEX  187 

I-ch'«ng  H.  (E-chiing)  D2.     Shan-hsi. 

CIM  (1902)  1  man.  1  wife. 
I-chou  F.  (E-j6)  E2.     Shan-tung. 

PN  (1891)  3  men  (1  physician),  2  wives,  3  other  women  (1  physician). 
Ichow  Fu,  see  1-chou  F.,  Shan-tung. 
Ien-ch*eng,  see  Yen-ch'6ng  H.,  Ho-nan. 
len-cheo,  see  Yen-chou  F.,  Ch6-chiang. 
len-t'ai.  see  Chefoo,  Shan-tung. 

I  Ho  Ch'iian  (E  Hoi  Chu5,n).  Public  Harmony  Fists,  a  name  of  the  Boxers. 
I  Ho  T'uan  (E  HoS,  Tooan),  Public  Harmony  Volunteers,  a  name  applied 

to  the  Boxsara. 
I  Ho  Yung  (E  HoS.  Yoong),  Public  Harmony  Braves,  a  name  of  the  Bozera. 
Ing-cheo,  see  Ying-chou  F.,  An-hui. 
Ing-cheo,  see  Ying  C,  Shan-hsi. 
Ing-chung  E4.     Fu-chien. 

ME  1  man  (physician),  2  unmarried  women. 
iDg-hok,  see  Yung-fu  H.,  Fu-chien. 
Ing-kia-uei,  see  Yin-chia-wei,  Shen-hsi. 
Ing-shan,  see  Ying-shan  H.,  Ssu-ch'uan. 
loh-iang,  see  Yvieh-yang  H.,  Shan-hsi. 
long-bing,  see  Yen-p'ing  F.,  Fu-chien. 
long-k'ang,  see  Yung-k'ang  H.,  Ch6-chiang. 
long-ning,  see  Yung-ning  H.,  Ho-nan. 
long-sin,  s^  Yung-hsin  H.,  Chiang-hsi. 
I-shih  H.  (E-sher)  D2.     Shan-hsi. 

CIM  (189r)  2  men,  1  wife,  4  other  women. 
I-yang  H.  CE-yang)  E4.     Chiang-hsi. 

CIM  (1890)  4  unmarried  women. 

J 

Jao-chou  F,  (Row-jo)  E4.     Chiang-hsi. 

CIM  (1898)  1  man. 
J6  nao  (rii  now)='*hot  racket,"  stirring,  interesting. 
Ju-ning  F.  (Roo-ning)  D3.     Ho-nan. 

ANCM  (1899)  3  men  (1  physician),  3  wives,  1  other  woman. 


Kachek  D6.     Kuang-timg. 

PN  (1900)  3  men  (1  physician),  1  wife. 
K'ai  H.  (Kl)  C3.     Ssii-ch'uan. 

CIM  (1902)  2  men. 
K'ai-ffing  F.  (Ki-fung)  D3.     Ho-nan. 

CIM  (1901)  2  men  (1  physician),  1  wife. 
K'ai-yilan  H.  (Ki-yu§.n*)  Fl.     Manchuria. 

UFS  (1896)  3  men  (1  physician),  3  wives,  2  other  women. 
Kalgan  Dl.     Chih-li. 

ABCFM  (1865)  2  men,  2  wives. 

BFBS  1  man,  1  wife. 

SAM  1  man,  1  wife. 
Kan-chou  F.,  Kan-cheo  (Gan-jo)  D4.     Chiang-hsi. 

CIM  (1899)  4  men,  2  wives. 
K'ang  Hsi  (Kang  Shg),  a  famous  Chinese  emperor. 
Kang-pui  D5.     Kuang-tung. 

RM  1  man,  1  wife. 
K'ang  Yii-wei  <Kang  Yu-wa),  a  famous  reformer  of  to-day. 
KAN-SU  (Gan-soo).     This  province  has  workers  of  the  following  societies: 

CA,  CIM,  SAM. 
Kan  Ying  P'ien  (Can  Ylng  Pe§n),  a  famous  Taoist  book. 
Kao-yu  C,  Kao-iu  (Gow-yoo)  E3.     Chiang-su. 

CIM  (1889)  2  unmarried  women. 
Kashing,  see  Chia-hsing  F.,  Ch6-chiang. 
Kayin,  ELayiatsohu,  see  Chia-ying  C,  Kuang-tung. 


i88  APPENDIX  D 


K6ng-tao,  Keng-tau  (Gung-dow)  E4.     Fu-chien. 

CMS  (1896)  3  unmarriedf  women. 
Khi-tschung.  Khitshhung  D5.     Kuang-tung. 

B  (1879)  1  man,  1  wife. 
Kiahing,  see  Chia-hsing  F.,  Ch^-chiang. 
Kiai-hsiu,  see  Chieh-hsiu  H.,  Shan-hsi. 
Kiang  (Geang)  =  Chiang  (Jeang)= river. 
Kiang-cheo,  see  Chiang  C.,  Shan-hsi. 
Kiang-tsin,  see  Chiang-ching  H.,  Ssu-ch'uan. 
Kiangyin,  see  Chiang-yin  H.,  Chiang-su. 
Kiao-chou,  Kiao-chow,  see  Chiao  C,  Shan-tung. 
Kiating,  see  Chia-ting  F.,  Ssu-ch'uan, 


Kiaying,  see  Chia-ying  C,  Kuang-tung. 
Kiehyang,  see  Chieh-yang  H.,  Kuang-tung. 
Kien-ch'ang,  see  Chien-ch'ang  F.  and  H.,  Chiang-hsi. 


Ki'en-cheo,  see  Ch'ien  C,  Shen-hsi. 

K'ien-iang,  see  Ch'ien-yang  H.,  Shen-hsi. 

Kien-ning,  see  Chien-ning  F.,  Fu-chien. 

Kien-p'ing,  see  Chien-p'ing  H.,  An-hui. 

Kien-yang,  see  Chien-yang  H.,  Fu-chien. 

Kih-an,  see  Chi-an  F.,  Chiang-hsi. 

Kih-cheo,  see  Chi  C,  Shan-hsi. 

King-cheo,  see  Ching  C,  Kan-su. 

King-tsi-kuan,  see  Ching-tzii  Kuan,  Ho-nan. 

Kin-hua,  see  Chin-hua  F.,  Ch6-chiang. 

Kinwha,  see  Chin-hua  F.,  Ch6-chiang. 

K'iong-cheo,  see  Ch'iung  C,  Ssii-ch'uan. 

Kirin=Chi-lin  (Jg-lln),  extreme  northeast  corner  of  map.     Manchuria. 

PCI  (1894)  3  men  (1  physician),  1  wife. 
Kityang,  Kit  Yang,  see  Chieh-yang  H.,  Kuang-tung. 
Kiu-kiang,  see  Chiu-chiang  F.,  Chiang-hsi. 
Kiungchow,  see  Chiung-chou  F.,  Kuang-tung. 
Ko-sang-che  =  Kao-3han-shih  (?)  E4.     Fu-chien. 

CMS  3  unmarried  women. 
Kowloon=Chiu-lung  (Jeoo-loong)  D5.     Kuang-tung. 

CMS  2  unmarried  women. 

DBMC  2  unmarried  women. 
Kuan  H.  (Gooan)  B3.     Ssu-ch'uan. 

CIM(1889)  2  men,  1  wife. 
Kuan-ch'6ng-tzu  (Gooan-chung-dsu),  extreme  northeast  corner  of  map.  Man- 
churia. 

PCI  (1891)  2  men  (1  physician),  2  wives,  3  other  women  (2  physicians). 
Kuang  C,  Kuang-cheu  (Gooang)  E3.     Ho-nan. 

CIM  (1899)  1  man. 
Kuang-chi  H.  (Gooang-je)  E3.     Hu-pei. 

WMS  1  man,  1  wife. 
Kuang-chou  Wan  (Gooang-j6  Wan),  a  bay  in  the  south  of  Kuang-tung. 
Kuang-feng  H.  (Gooang-fiing)  E4.     Chiang-hsi. 

CIM  (1889)  1  unmarried  woman. 
KUANG-HSI   (Gooang-she).     This   province  has  workers  of  the  following 

societies:    BFBS,  CA,  CMS,  SBC,  WMS. 
Kuang-hsin  F.,  Kuang-sin  (Gooang-sMn)  E4.     Chiang-hsi. 

CIM  (1901)  2  unmarried  women. 
Kuang  Hsu  (Gooang  Shii),  present  Emperor  of  China. 
Kuang-ning  H.,  Kwangnmg  (Gooang-nlng)  Fl.     Shftng-ching. 

PCI  (1895)  1  man,  1  wife. 
Kuang-p'ing  F,  (Gooang-pJng)  E2.     Chih-li. 

SCM  1  man,  1  wife,  1  other  woman. 
Kuang-tft  C,  Kuang-teh  (Gooang-du)  E3.     An-hm. 

CIM  (1890)  1  man,  1  wife. 
KUANG-TUNG  (Gooang-doong).     This  province  has  workers  of  the  follow- 
ing societies:   ABCFM,  ABMU,  ABS,  B,  BFBS,  Bnl,  CCC,   CMS,   DBMC, 

KRI,  LMS,  PCC,  PCE,  PN,  PNZ,  RM,  RP,  SAFM,  SBC,  SDA,  UBW,  WMS. 
Kuang-yUan  H.,  Kuang-uen  (Gooang-yuS,n)  C3.     Ssti-ch'uan. 

CIM  (1889)  2  unmarried  women. 


PRONOUNCING  INDEX  189 


Kuan  Ti  (Gooan  De).  the  Chinese  God  of  War. 
Kuan  Yin  (Gooan  Yin),  a  popular  goddess. 
K'ii-cheo,  see  Ch'ii-chou  F.,  Che-chiang. 
Ku-cheng,  see  Ku-t'ien  H.,  Fu-chien. 
Ku-ch'feng  H.,  Kuh-ch'eng  (Goo-chung)  D3.     Hu-pei. 

CIM  (1903)  1  man,  1  wife. 
Kuei-ch'i  H.,  Kuei-k'i  (Gooa-che)  E4.     Chiang-hsi. 

CIM  (1878)  4  unmarried  women. 
KUEI-CHOU  (Gooa-jo).     This  province  haa  workers  of  the  CIM  only. 
Kuei-chou  F.,  Kuei-cheo  (Gooa-j6)  D3.     Ssfi-ch'uan. 

CIM  (1903)  2  men. 
Kuei-lin  F.  (Gooa-Un)  D4.     Kuang-hsi. 

CMS  (1899)      men.  1  wife. 
Kuei-yang  F.,  Kuei-iang  (Gooa-yS,ng)  C4.     Kuei-chou. 

CIM  (1877)  2  men,  2  wives,  2  other  women. 
K'iJ  Hsien,  see  Ch'ii  H.,  Ssu-ch'uan. 
K'iih-tsing,  see  CJh'il-ching  F.,  Yun-nan. 
K'ilh-u,  see  Ch'ii-wu  H.,  Shan-hsi. 
Ku-ling  (Goo-ling)  E4.     Chiang-hsi. 

CIM  (1898)  1  man,  1  wife. 

INDEPENDENT  1  man,  1  wife. 
K'ung  (Koong),  surname  of  Confucius. 
K'ung  Fu-tzti  (Koong  Foo-dsu),  the  Chinese  words  which  were  Latinized 

Confucius. 
Kung-li  Hui  (Goong-lg  Hooa)  =  Congregationalists. 
Ku-t'ien  H.  (Goo-tegn)  E4.     Fu-chien. 

CEZMS  (1889)  4  unmarried  women. 

CMS  (1887)  2  men.  2  wives,  I  other  woman. 

ME  2  men  (1  physician),  2  wives,  4  other  women. 


Lai-an  H.  (Ll-an)  E3.     An-hui. 

CIM  (1899)  2  men,  1  wife. 
Lai-chou  F.,  Laichow  (Li-j6)  E2.     Shan-tung. 

SBC  2  men.  2  wives,  2  otner  women. 
Lan-ch*i  H.,  Lan-k'i  (Lan-che)  F4.     Ch6-chiang. 

CIM  (1894)  2  unmarried  women. 
Lan-chou  F.,  Lan-cheo  (Lan-j6)  B2.     Kan-su. 

CIM  (1885)  7  men  (1  physician),  3  wives. 
Lan-t*ien  H.  (Lan-teSn)  C3.     Shen-hsi. 

CIM  (1895)  1  man,  1  wife. 
Lao-ho-k'ou,  Lao-ho-k'eo  (Low-hou-ko)  D3.     Hu-pei. 

CIM  (1887)  1  man,  1  wife,  3  other  women. 

NLK  (1894)  13  men,  3  wives,  9  other  women. 
Lao-ling,  see  LMing  H.,  Shan-tung. 

Lao-tzu  (Low-d8u)  =  old  philosopher,  the  founder  of  the  Taoist  sect. 
Lfe-linz  H.  (Lu-Ung)  E2.     Shan-tung. 

MNC  (1866)  2  men  (1  physician),  2  wives. 
Li  (Le),  an  exceedingly  common  Chinese  surname  signifying  plum. 
Liang-chou  F.,  Liang-cheo  (L§ang-j6)  B2.     Kan-su. 

CIM  (1888)  2  men.  2  wives,  1  other  woman. 
Liang-shan  H.  (Leang-shan)  C3.     Ssfi-ch'uan. 

CIM  (1902)  1  man,  1  wife. 
Liao-tung  (Leow-doong),  peninsula  in  Manchuria. 
Liao-yang  C.  (Lgow-yang)  Fl.     Manchuria. 

UFS  (1882)  3  men  (1  physician).  2  wives,  3  other  women  (1  physician). 
Li  Chi  (L6  Je),  one  of  the  Five  Classics. 
Li-ch'Uan  H.,  Li-tsiien  (Lg-chu&n)  C3.     Shen-hsi. 

CIM  (1903)  1  man,  1  wife. 
Lieh  (Lggh).  a  Taoist  writer. 
Lien  C.  (Legn-j6)  D5.     Kuang-tung. 

PN  3  men  (1  physician).  2  wives,  1  other  woman  (physician). 
Lien-chiang  H.  (LeSn-jeang)  E4.     Fu-chien. 

CMS  (1897)  5  unmarried  women. 


190 


APPENDIX  D 


Lieng-kong,  see  Lien-chiang  H.,  Fu-chien. 

Li  Hung-chang  (Le  Hoong-jang),  a  famous  viceroy,  recently  deceased. 

Lilong  D5.     Kuang-tung. 

B  (1852)  2  men,  2  wives. 
Lin  (Iln),  a  fabulous  animal. 
Li-nai  (Le-nl),  name  of  a  pass. 
Lin-chiang  F.,  Lin-kiang  (Lin-jgang)  E4,     Chiang-hsi. 

CIM  (1898)  3  men. 
Ling  (ling),  spiritual. 

Li  T'ai-pai  (Le  Ti-bi),  a  T'ang  dynasty  poet. 
Liu-an  C,  (Lgoo-an)  E3.     An-hm. 

CIM  (1890)  1  man,  1  wife. 
Lo-han  (Lou-han),  godlike. 
Lokong  E5.     Kuang-tung. 

B  2  men. 
Long-cKeo,  see  Lung  C,  Shen-hsi. 
Long-chii-ts'ai,  see  Lung-chii-sai,  Shen-hsi. 
Longheu  D5.     Kuang-tung. 

B  (1882)  1  man,  1  wife. 
Long-ts'uen,  see  Lung-ch'iian  H.,  Ch6-chiang. 
Long-ts'uen,  see  Lung-ch'iian,  H.,  Chiang-hsi. 
Lo-nguong,  Lo-ngwong,  see  Lo-yiian  H.,  Fu-chien. 
Lo-yilan  H.  (Lou-yiian)  F4.     Fu-chien. 

CEZMS  (1893)  3  unmarried  women. 

CMS  (1889)  1  man.  1  wife. 
Lu  (Loo),  surname,  name  of  a  state,  etc. 
Lu  C.,  Lu-cheo  (Loo)  C4.     Ssu-ch*uan. 

CIM  (1890)  3  men,  1  wife,  1  other  woman. 
Lu-an  F.  (Loo-an)  D2.     Shan-hsi. 

CIM  (1889)  1  man,  1  wife,  2  other  women. 
Lu-ch**ng  H.  (Loo-chung)  D2.     Shan-hsi. 

CIM  (1889)  2  unmarried  women. 
Lu-ch*iao,  Lu-k'iao  (Loo-cheow)  F4.     Chfi-chiang. 

CIM  (1900)  2  unmarried  woman. 
Lu-chou  F.,  Lu  Cheo  (Loo-jo)  E3.     An-hui. 

FCMS  (1894)  3  men  (1  physician),  3  wives. 
Luh-an,  see  Liu-an  C,  An-hui. 
Luh  Hoh,  see  Lu-ho,  Chiang-su. 
Lu-ho  (Loo-h6u)   E3.     Chiang-su. 

AFFM  2  men  (1  physician),  1  wife  (physician),  2  other  women. 
Lukhang  D5.     Kuang-tung. 

Bnl  (1897)  2  men.  2  wives. 


Lung  C.  (Loong)  C2.     Shen-hsi. 

CIM  (1893)  2  men,  1  wife. 
Lung-ch*Uan  H.  (Loong-chii'Sn)  E4.     Chd-chiang. 

CIM  (1894)  2  men. 
Lung-ch'Uan  H.  (Loong-chii&n)  D4.     Chiang-hsi. 

CIM  (1904)  1  man. 
Lung-chU-chai  (Loong-ju-ji)  D3.     Shen-hsi. 

CIM  (1903)  2  men. 
Lung  Hu  Shan  (Loong  Hoo  Shan),  name  of  a  mountain. 
Lun  Yu  (Loon  Yii),  one  of  the  "Four  Books." 


Hacao  D5  (Portuguese  possession).     Kuang-tung. 

CCC  6  men,  3  wives,  1  other  woman. 

PCC   1   man. 
MANCHURIA  has  little  work  outside  the  southern  province  of  Shdng-ching 

(Shung-jing),    It  has  workers  of  the  following  societies:  BFBS,  DM,  PC^ 

SPGC,  UFS. 
Ma  Tuan-lin  (Ma  Dooan-lJn),  a  noted  Chinese  antiquary. 
Mei  H.  (Ma)  C3.     Shen-hsi. 

CIM  (1893)  1  man,  1  wife,  1  other  woman. 


PRONOUNCING  INDEX  191 


Mfing-tzii  (Mung-dsii),  Latinized  as  Mencius. 

Men  p'ai  (mun  pI)=door  tablet. 

Miao-tzu  (Meow-dsu),  name  of  aborigines. 

Miao-yii-ts'ao  (MSow-yii-ts'ow),  near  Kuei-chou  F.  D3.     Ssu-ch'uan. 

CIM  1  unmarried  woman. 
Mien  C,  Mien-Cheo  (Mggn)  B3.     Ssii-ch'uan. 

CMS  (1894)  16  men,  (1  physician),  13  wives,  9  other  women. 
Mien  H,  (Mggn)  C3.     Shen-hsi. 

CIM  (1904)  1  man.  1  wife. 
Min  C.  (Min)  B3.     Kan-su. 

CA  1  man,  1  wife,  3  other  women. 
Min-ch'ing  H.  (MIn-chIng)  E4.     Fu-chien. 

ME  3  unmarried  women  (1  physician). 
Ming  (Ming),  name  of  a  dynasty. 
Mingchiang,  see  Min-ch'ing  H.,  Fu-chien. 
Moilim(  =  Mei-lin  ?)  E5.     Kuang-tung. 

B  (1889)  2  men.  2  women. 
Mo-kan-shan  (Mou-gan-shan)  F3.     Chft-chianjc. 

CIM  (1901). 
Moukden.  see  Mukden,  Manchuria. 
Mukden  Fl.     Manchuria. 

BFBS  2  men,  1  wife. 

PCI  (1889)  2  men  (1  physician),  2  wives,  1  other  woman. 

UFS  (1875)  6  men  (2  physicians),  6  wives,  4  other  women  (2  physicians). 


Nan  (nan)=  south. 

Nan  C,  Nan-cheo  (Nan)  D4.     Hu-nan. 

CIM  (1904)  2  men. 
Nan-ch'ang  F.  (Nan-chang)  E4.     Chiang-hsi. 

CIM  (1898)  2  men,  1  wife. 

CM  1  man,  1  wife,  2  other  women. 

ME  2  men  (1  physician),  2  wives,  2  other  women. 
Nan-f6ng  H.  (Nan-fung)  E4.     Chiang-hsi. 

CIM  (1903)  2  men,  1  wife. 
Nang-wa  (Nang-wa)  E4.     Fu-chien. 

CEZMS  (1891)  3  unmarried  women. 
Nan-k'ang  F.  (Nan-kang)  E4.     Chiang-hsi. 

CIM  (1887)  1  man,  1  wife. 
Nanking,  Nan-king=Nan-ching  F.  (Nan-jing)  E3.     Chiang-su, 

AA  (1897)  1  man,  1  wife,  2  other  women. 

AFFM  (1890)  5  women  (1  physician). 

FCMS  (1887)  4  men  (1  physician),  4  wives,  4  other  women. 

ME  (1867)  6  men  (2  physicians),  5  wives,  3  other  women. 

PN  (1876)  3  men,  3  wives,  3  other  women. 

YMCA  (1898)  1  man,  1  wife. 
Nan-ling  H.  (Nan-ling)  E3.     An-hui. 

CA  3  unmarried  women. 
Nan-pu  H.  (Nan-boo)  C3.     Ssfl-ch'uan. 

CIM  (1902)  3  unmarried  women. 
Ngan-king,  see  An-ch'ing  F.,  An-hui. 

Ngan-luh,  see  An-lu  F.,  Hu-pei.  ^ 

Ngucheng,  see  Fu-ch'ing  H.,  Fu-chien. 
Nien-hang-li  E5.     Kuang-txing. 

B  (1866)  3  men,  1  wife. 
Nien  shu  tso  kuan  (nggn  shoo  dsoii  gooftn)  =  "  study  books  to  become  an 

official." 
Ning-hai  H.  (Ning-hi)  F4.     Chft-chiang. 

CIM  (1868)  1  man.  1  wife.  2  other  women. 
Ning-hai  C.  (NIng-hl)  F2.     Shan-tung. 

CIM  (1896)  2  women. 
Ning-kuo  F.,  Ning-kueh  (NIng-goo5u)  E3.     An-hui 

CIM  (1874)  2  men,  2  wives,  1  other  woman. 


ipa  APPENDIX  D 


Ning-po  F.  (NIng-bou)  F4.     Ch^chiang. 

ABMU  (1843)  3  men  (1  physician),  3  wives,  3  unmarried  women. 

CIM  (1857)  1  man,  1  wife. 

CM  7  unmarried  women. 

CMS  (1848)  6  men  (1  physician),  5  wives,  7  other  women. 

PN  (1845)  4  men,  4  wives,  3  other  women. 

UMFC  (1864)  4  men  (1  physician),  3  wives,  2  other  women. 
Ning-taik.  see  Ning-t6  H.,  Fu-chien. 
Ning-t6  H.  (Nlng-du)  F4.     Fu-chien. 

CMS  (1896)  2  men,  5  unmarried  women. 
Niu-ch'uang,  Niu  Ch'wang  (Ngoo-chooang)  Fl.     Manchuria. 

PCI  (1869)  2  men  (1  physician)    1  wife. 

SPGC  (1892)  1  man,  1  wife. 
Ifodoa  C6.     Kuang-tung. 

PN  (1892)  4  men  (1  physician),  2  wives,  1  other  woman. 
Nyenhangii,  see  Nien-hang-h,  Kuang-tung. 


O 

0-mi-t'o  (Ou-m5-tou)=Amita  (Buddha). 


Pa  C,  Pa-cheo  (Ba)  C3.     Ssu-ch'uan. 

CIM  (1887)  3  unmarried  women. 
Pagoda  Anchorage  E4.     Fuchien. 

ABCFM  (1890)  2  men  (1  physician),  2  wives. 
Pak-hoi,  see  Pei-hai,  Kuang-tung. 
Pa-k'ou  (Ba-ko)  El.     Chih-U. 

CM  4  men,  2  wives. 
Pan  Chao  (Ban  Jow),  a  famous  woman  historian. 
P'ang-chuang  (Pang-jooang)  E2.     Shan-tung. 

ABCFM  (1880)  2  men  (1  physician),  2  wives,  2  unmarried  women. 
P*ang-hai  (Pang-hi)  C4.     Kuei-chou. 

CIM  (1897). 
Pan  Ku  (Ban  Goo),  historian  of  the  Han  dynasty. 
P'an  Ku  (Pan  Goo),  mythical  artificer  of  the  universe. 
Pao-ch*ing  F.,  Pao-k'ing  (Bow-ching)  D4.     Hu-nan. 

CIM  (1903)  2  men. 

WMS  2  men. 
Pao-ning  F.  (Bow-ning)  C3.     Ssii-ch'uan. 

CIM  (1886)  3  men  (1  physician),  1  wife,  3  other  women. 
Pao-ting  F.  (Bow-ding)  E2.     Chih-li. 

ABCFM  (1873)  2  men,  2  wives,  1  unmarried  woman. 

PN  (1893)  5  men  (1  physician),  4  wives,  4  other  women  (1  physician). 
Pao-t'ou,  Pao-t'eo  (Bow-to)  01.     Mongolia. 

CIM  (1903)  1  man,  1  wife. 
Pei  (ba)=  north. 
Pei-hai  (Ba-hl)  05.     Kuang-tung. 

CMS  (1886)  6  men  (3  physicians),  3  wives,  5  other  women. 
Pei  T'ang  (Ba  Tang),  name  of  Catholic  cathedral  in  Peking. 
Peking =Pei-ching  (Ba-jing)  El,  2.     Chih-li. 

ABCFM  (1862)  2  men,  2  wives,  5  other  women. 

CBM  (1888)  1  man,  1  wife. 

LMS  (1861)  4  men  (1  phy.sician),  3  wives,  2  other  women  (1  physician) 

ME  (1869)  7  men  (2  physicians),  6  wives,  6  other  women  (1  physician) 

PN  (1863)  6  men  (1  physician),  6  wives,  5  other  women  (1  physician). 

SPGC  (1863)  2  men,  4  unmarried  women. 
Phyangthong,  E5.     Kuang-tung. 

B  2  men,   1   wife. 
P'ing-i  H.  (Plng-e)  B4.     Ytin-nan 

:;fM 


CIM  (1904)  1  man. 
P'ing-liang  F.  (Plng-leang)  02.     Kan-su. 
CIM  (1895)  1  man.  1  wife,  3  other  women. 


PRONOUNCING  INDEX 


193 


P'ing-nan  H.  (PIng-nan)  E4.     Fu-chien. 

CEZMS  2  unmarried  women  (1  physician). 
P'ing-tu  C.  (PIng-doo)  E2.     Shan-tung. 

SBC  (1885)  1  man,  1  wife.  1  other  woman. 
P'ing-yang  H.,  P'ing-iang  (PIng-yang)  F4.     Chfi-chiang. 

CIM  (1874)  1  man,  1  wife. 
P'ing-yang  F.,  Ping-iang  (Ping-yang)  D2.     Shan-hsi. 

CIM  (1879)  2  men,  1  wife,  2  other  women. 
P'ing-yao  H.,  P'ing-iao  (Ping-yow)  D2.     Shan-hsi. 

CIM  (1888)  2  men,  2  wives. 
P'ing-yin  H.  (PIng-yin)  E2.     Shan-tung. 

SPGC  (1S79)  1  man,  1  wife. 
Pi  Sheng  (Be  Shung),  inventor  of  movable  type. 
Po  C.  (Bou)  E3.     An-hui. 

IBM   1   man. 
Port  Arthur  F2.     Manchuria. 

DM  (1896)  1  man,  1  wife,  1  other  woman. 
Pu-chou  F.,  Pu-cheo  (Boo-jo)  D3.     Shan-hsi. 

CIM  (1903)  2  unmarried  women. 
P'u  T'o  (Poo  Tou),  name  of  a  sacred  island. 


Rao-cheo,  see  Jao-chou  F.,  Chiang-hsi. 
Running  Fu,  see  Ju-ning  F.,  Ho-nan. 

S 

Samho-pa,  see  San-ho,  Kuang-tung. 

Sang-chia  Chuang,  Sang-kia-chuang  (Sang-jea  JooSng)  C3.     Shen-hsi. 

CIM  (1894)  1  unmarried  woman. 
Sang-yong  E4.     Fu-chien. 

CEZMS  (1894)  3  unmarried  women. 
San-ho  (Siin-hou)  Eo.     Kuang-tung. 

PCE  (1895)  2  men  (1  physician),  1  wife. 
San  Kuo  (San  Goo6u)  =  Three  Kingdoms. 
San-shui  H.  (San-shooa)  C2.     Shen-hsi. 

CIM  (1897)  1  man,  1  wife. 
San-yiian  H.  (San-yiian)  C3.     Shen-hsi. 

BMS  1  man. 
Sa-yong  E4.     Fu-chien. 

CEZMS  (1893)  2  unmarried  women. 
Schakkok  D5.     Kuang-tung. 

Bnl  1  man,  1  wife. 
Sha-ho-tzu  (Sha-hou-dsu),  see  An-tung  H.     Manchuria. 
Shai-k'i-tien,  see  Sh6-ch'i  Tien,  Ho-nan. 
Shan  (siian)  =  mountain. 
Shang  (Shang),  a  dynastic  name. 
Shang-ch'ing,  Shang-ts'ing  (Shang-ching)  E4.     Chiang-hsi. 

CIM  (1893)  2  unmarried  women. 
Shanghai  H.  (Shang-hl)  F3.     Chiang-su. 

ABS  (1876)  3  men,  2  wives. 

BFBS  3  men,  1  wife. 

BFSS  (1895)  1  man,  1  wife. 

BMS  1  man  in  connection  with  Diffusion  Society. 

CA  1  man,  1  wife. 

CIM  (1854)  8  men,  7  wives,  8  other  women. 

CMS  (1845)  5  men,  4  wives,  3  other  women. 

CP  1  man  in  connection  with  Diffusion  Society,  1  wife. 

FCMS  (1891)  2  men,  2  wives,  1  other  woman. 

LMS  (1843)  3  men,  3  wives,  2  other  women. 

INDEPENDENT  2  men,  2  wives,  1  other  woman. 


194' 


APPENDIX  D 


ME  2  men,  2  wives. 

MES  (1848)  5  men,  4  wives,  9  other  women. 

PE  (1853)  13  men  (3  physicians),  9  wives,  10  other  women  (3  physicians). 

PN  (1850)  9  men,  6  wives,  5  other  women. 

PS  1   man,   1   woman. 

SBC  (1847)  3  men,  3  wives,  2  other  women. 

SDB  (1847)  2  men,  2  wives,  2  other  women  (1  physician). 

USCE  1  man,  1  wife. 

WMS  1  man  in  connection  with  Diffusion  Society,  1  wife. 

WU  (1881)  6  unmarried  women  (4  physicians). 

YMCA  (1898)  5  men,  5  wives,  1  other  woman. 

YWCA  (1903)   1  unmarried  woman. 
Shanjj  Ti  (Shang  De)  =  Supreme  Ruler,  a  leading  Chinese  deity;  God. 
SHAN-HSI  (Shan-she).     This  province  has  workers  of  the  following  societies: 

ABCFM,  BMS,  BZM,  CIM,  UNCONNECTED. 
SHAN-TUNG   (Shan-doong).     This   province  has  workers  of  the  following 

societies:  ABCFM,  AEPM,  BFBS,  BMS,  Bnl,  BZM,  CIM,  CM,  IBM,  ME, 

MNC,  PN,  SBC,  SBM,  SCM,  SPGC,  UNCONNECTED. 
Shao-  or  Shaou-Hing,  see  Shao-hsing  F.,  ChS-chiang. 
Shao-hsing  F.,  Shaohsing  (Show-shing)  F3.     Chfe-chiang. 

ABMU  (1869)  3  men  (1  physician),  3  wives. 

CIM  (1866)  2  men,  1  wife,  2  other  women. 

CMS  (1870)  1  man,  1  wife,  3  other  women. 

INDEPENDENT  1  man. 
Shao-wu  F.  (Show-woo)  E4.     Fu-chien. 

ABCFM  (1877)  2  men  (1  physician),  1  wife,  3  other  women. 
Shao-yang   (Show-yang),    a  city  giving  its  name  to  an    English  Mission 

which  was  blotted  out  by  the  Boxers. 
Sha-shih,  Shashi  (Sha-sher)  D3.     Hu-pei. 

SMF  (1896)  3  men,  2  wives. 
Shaai,  see  Sha-shih,  Hu-pei. 
She-chi  Tien  (Shu-che  DeSn)  D3.     Ho-nan. 

CIM  (1886)  1  physician,  1  wife. 
Sh6n  (Shun),  one  name  for  God  ;  god,  gods. 
Sh^ng  Ching  (Shung  Jing)=Holy  Canon,  Bible.     Sheng-ching,  Manchuria's 

southern  division. 
SHEN-HSI  (Shen-she  in  Chinese  is  pronounced  just  as  is  Shan-hsi,  except 

that  the  tone  of  the  first  word  differs).     This  province  has  workers  of  the 

following  societies:  BMS,  BZM,  CIM,  SAM. 
Shih  Ching  (Sher  Jing),  one  of  the  "Five  Classics." 
Shih  Huang-ti  (Sher  Whang-d6),  a  builder  of  the  Great  Wall. 
Shih-tao  H.  (Sher-dow)  F2.     Shan-tung. 

CM  1  man,  1  wife. 
Shiu-hing,  see  Hsin-hsing  H.,  Kuang-tung. 
Shui-chou  F.,  Shui-cheo-fu  (Shooa-j6)  E4.     Chiang-hsi. 

CM  2  men,   1   wife. 
Shun  (Shoon),  a  famous  early  emperor. 
Shun-ch*ing  F.,  Shuen-k'ing  (Shoon-ching)  C3.     Ssii-ch*uan. 

CIM  (1896)  1  man,  1  wife,  1  other  woman. 
Shun-te  F.,  Shun-teh  (Shoon-du)  D2.     Chih-li. 

CIM  (1888)  1  man,  1  woman. 

PN  (1893)  1  man  (1  physician),  1  wife,  1  other  woman  (physician). 
Shu,  Shu  Ching  (Shoo,  Shoo  Jing)  =  "Book  of  History." 
Shij-ting,  see  Sui-ting  F.,  Ssu-ch'uan. 
Si-an,  see  Hsi-an  F.,  Shen-hsi. 
Siang  Hsien,  see  Hsiang-ch'fing  H.,  Ho-nan. 
Siangtan,  see  Hsiang-t'an  H.,  Hu-nan. 
Siao-shi,  see  Hsiao-shih.  Ssu-ch'uan. 
Sieng-iu.  .see  Hsien-yu  H.,  Fu-chien. 
Sien-kii,  see  Hsien-chil  H.,  Ch6-chiang. 
Sih-cheo,  see  Hsi  C,  Shan-hsi. 
Si-hsiang,  see  Hsi-hsiang  H.,  Shen-hsi. 
Si-hua,  see  Hsi-hua  H.,  Ho-nan. 
Sin-an,  see  Hsin-an  H.,  Ho-nan. 
Sin-ch'ang,  see  Hsin-ch'ang  H.,  Ch6-chiang. 


PRONOUNCING  INDEX  195 


Sin-f6ng,  see  Hsin-f^ng  H.,  Chiang-hsi. 
Si-ngan,  see  Hsi-an  F.,  Shen-hsi. 
Singiu,  see  Hsien-yu  H.,  Fu-chien. 
Si-ning,  see  Hsi-ning  F.,  Kan-su. 
Sin-tien-tsi,  see  Hsin-tien-tzu,  Ssu-ch'uan. 
Sinyong,  see  Hsin-yang  C,  Ho-nan. 
Sio-ke,  Sio-Khe  E5.     Fu-chien. 

RCA  (1887)  2  men  (1  physician),  2  wives,  1  other  -woman. 
Song-iang,  see  Sung-yang  H.,  Che-chiang. 
Soochow,  see  Su-chou  F.,  Chiang-su. 
So-p'ing  F.,  Soh-p'ing  (Sou-ping)  Dl.     Shan-hsi. 

CIM  (1895). 
Ssu  (ssu)  =  silk.  .        ,  ,  ,  XL     *  11      . 

SSU-CH'UAN  (Ssu-chooan).    This  province  has  workers  of  the  following  so- 
cieties:  ABMU,  ABS,  BFBS,  CIM,  CMS,  FCMS  (native  workers),  FFMA, 

LMS,  MCC,  ME,  NBS,  SDK. 
Ssu  Hai  (Ssu  Hi)  =  "  Four  Seas,"  name  of  China. 
Ssii-ma  Ch'ien  (Ssu-ma  Cheen),    China's  Herodotus. 
Ssu-ma  Kuang  (Ssu-ma  Gooang),  a  Sung  Dynasty  historian. 
Ssii  Shu  (Ssu  Shoo)  =  "  Four  Books." 
Suabue  E5.     Kuang-tung. 

PCE  (1893)  2  men  (1  physician),  2  wives. 
Sii-cheo,  see  Hsu-chou  F.,  Ssu-ch'uan. 
Suchien,  see  Hsii-ch'ien,  Chiang-su. 
Su-chou  F.  (Soo-jo)  F3.     Chiang-su.  ,  ,,     ,      .  .     v 

MES  (1863)  8  men  (2  physicians),  8  wives,  6  other  women  (1  physician), 

PE  2  men. 

FN  (1871)  3  men,  3  wives,  4  other  women  (2  physicians). 

PS  (1872)  4  men  (1  physician),  4  wives,  4  other  women. 

SBC  (1875)  2  men,  2  wives. 
Sui  (Sooe),  name  of  a  dynasty. 
Sui  C.  (Soog)  D3.     Hu-pei. 

"WMS  2  men,  1  wife,  1  other  woman. 
Suifu,  Suichaufu,  see  Hsii-chou  F.,  Chiang-su. 
SuiUng,  see  Sui-ning  H.,  Ssu-ch'uan. 
Sui-ning  H.  (Sooe-ning)  C3.     Ssu-ch'uan. 

ME  1  man,  1  wife. 
Sui-ting  F.  (Sooe-ding)  C3.     Ssu-ch'uan. 

CIM  (1899)  2  men  (1  physician),  2  wives,  4  other  women. 
Sui-yang,  see  Sui  C.  Hu-pei. 
Sung  (Soong),  name  of  a  dynasty. 
Sung-chiang  F.  (Soong-jeiing)  F3.     Chiang-su. 

MES  (1884)  2  men,  1  wife,  3  other  women. 
Sung-yang  H.  (Soong-yang)  E4.     Chfe-chiang. 

CIM  (1896)  1  man,  1  wife. 
Su  Tung-p'o  (Soo  Doong-pou),  a  poet  of  the  Sung  Dynasty. 
Swatau  =  (Shan-t'ou,  Shan-tow)  E5.     Kuang-tung.  ,  . 

ABMU  (1842)  6  men  (1  physician),  6  wives,  4  other  women  (1  physician). 

PCE   (1856)   6   men   (2  physicians),   5  wives,   5  other  women  (2  phy- 
sicians). 
Swatow,  see  Swatau.  Kuang-tung. 
Syu-yin=Syn  yin   D4.     Kuang-tung. 

Bnl  (1893)  2  men   2  wives. 


Ta-chien-lu  T.,  Ta-tsien-lu  (Da-jeen-loo)  B3.     Ssii-ch'uan. 

CIM  (1897)  3  men,  1  wife.  ,^. 

Ta  Ch'ing  Kuo  (Da  Ching  Gw6u)="  Great  Pure  Kingdom,"  a  name  of  China, 
T'ai-an  F.  (Ti-an)  E2.     Shan-tung. 

IBM  3  men,  3  wives,  3  other  women. 

ME  1  man,  1  wife,  2  other  women  (1  physician). 

SPGC  (1878)  1  man. 
T'ai  Chi  (Ti  Je)="  Great  Extreme,"  a  philosophical  term. 


196  APPENDIX  D 


T*ai-chou  F.,  T'ai-chco  (Ti-j6)  F4.     Ch6-chiang. 

CIM  (1867)  3  men  (1  phyaician),  2  wives. 

CMS  (1892)  3  men  (1  physician),  2  wives,  1  other  woman. 
T'ai-ho  H.  (Ti-hou)  E3.     An-hui. 

CIM  (1892)  1  man,  1  wife,  1  other  woman. 
T'ai-k'ang  H.  (Ti-kang)  E3.     Ho-nan. 

CIM  (1895)  1  man.  1  wife. 
T*al-ku  H.  (Ti-goo)  D2.     Shan-hsi. 

ABCFM  (1883)  2  men  (1  physician),  2  wives. 
Tai-ming  F.,  Ta-ming  (Di-mlng)  E2.     Chih-li. 

SCM  5  men,  2  wives,  10  other  women. 
Tai-ngan  Fu,  see  T'ai-an  F.,  Shan-tung. 

T'ai  Ping  CH  Ping)  =  Great  Peace;  name  of  the  T'ai  P'ing  rebels. 
T'ai-p'ing  H.  (Tl-ping)  F4.     Chfe-chiang. 

CIM  (1898)  1  man,  1  wife. 
Tai-p'ing  (Dl-ping)  D5.     Kuang-tung. 

RM  1  man,  1  wife. 
T'ai-p'ing-tien  (Ti-plng-degn)  D3.     Hu-pei. 

HSK  1  man,  1  wife. 
T'ai  Shan  (Ti  Shan) = a  most  sacred  mountain. 
T'ai  Tsung  (Ti  Dsoong),  the  second  T'ang  emperor. 
T'ai-yiian  F.,  T'ai-yuen  (Tl-yiian)  D2.     Shan-hsi. 

BMS  (1878)  4  men  (1  physician),  3  wives. 
Tak  Hing  Chau,  see  T6-ch'ing  C,  Kuang-tung. 

Ta-ku  (Da-goo),  location  of  forts  at  mouth  of  the  Pel  Ho  in  Chih-li. 
Ta-ku-shan  H.  (Ta-goo-shan)  F2.     Manchuria. 

DM  (1896)  2  men,  2  wives,  1  other  woman. 
Ta-ku-t'ang  (Da-goo-tang)  E4.     Chiang-hsi. 

CIM  (1873)  1  man,  1  woman, 
Ta-U  F.  (Da-lg)  B4.     Yiin-nan. 

CIM  (1881)  3  men  (1  physician). 
Ta-lien   Wan   (Da-Ieen  Wan),  a   peninsula   in   Manchuria,  part   of   Liao- 

tung. 
T'ang-shan,  Tong-shan  (Tang-shan)  E2.     Chih-li. 

MNC  (1884)  2  men  (1  physician),  1  wife. 
T'ang  (Tang) = name  of  a  dynasty  and  of  an  emperor. 
T'ang  Shan  (Tang  Shan)=Hill8  of  T'ang. 
Ta-ning  H.  (Da-ning)  D2.     Shan-hsi. 

CIM  (1885)  2  unmarried  women. 
Tantong  D5.     Kuang-tung. 

RM  1  man,  1  wife. 
Tao  (Dow)=Reason,  etc.;  see  page  58. 
T'ao-chou  T.,  Tao-cheo  (Tow-j6)  B3.     Kan-su. 

CA  3  men,  1  wife. 
Taoism  (Dowism). 

Tao-t'ai  (dow-ti),  an  intendant  of  circuit. 
Tao-t6  Ching  (Dow-du  Jing),  name  of  Taoist  Scriptures. 
Ta  Tao  Hui  (Da  Dow  Hooa),  Great  Sword  Society,  a  name  applied  to  the 

Boxers. 
Ta-t'ong,  see  Ta-t'ung,  An-hui. 
Ta-t'ung  (Dii-toong),  E3.     An-hui. 

CA  1  man,  1  wife. 
Ta-fung  F.,  Ta-t'ong  (Da-toong)  Dl.     Shan-hsi. 

CIM  (1886)  1  man,  1  wife,  1  other  woman. 
T*-an  H.  (Du-an)  E4.     Chiang-hsi. 

CM  2  men,  1  wife. 
T6-an  F.  (Du-an)  D3.     Hii-pei. 

WMS  2  men  (1  physician),  2  wives. 
T«-ch'ing  C.  (Dii-chlng)  D5.     Kuang-tung. 

RP  (1897)  3  men  (1  physician),  3  wives,  2  other  women  (1  physician). 
T6-ngan  F.,  see  Te-an  F.,  Hu-pei. 
Teh-ngan-hsien,  see  Te-an  H.,  Chiang-hsi. 
T6ng-chou  F.,  Tengchow  (Dung-j6)  F2.     Shan-tung. 

FN  (18G1)  4  men  (I  physician),  3  wives,  2  other  women. 

SBC  (1860)  3  men,  3  wives,  2  other  women. 


PRONOUNCING  INDEX  197 

Thong-thau-ha  D5.     Kuang-tung. 

RM  1  man. 
T'iao-chin  Chiao  (Teow-jin  Jeow)  =  name  of  the  Jews. 
T'ien  Ch'ao  (Tggn  Chow)  =  Heavenly  Dynasty. 
T'ien  Chu  Chiao  (Teen  Joo  Jeow)  =  Cathohc8. 
T'ien  Hsia  (Tegn  Shea)  =  name  of  China. 
T'ien  Kuo  (Teen  Gooou),  T'ai  P'ings'  name  of  their  dynasty. 
T'ien-fai  H.  (Tgen-ti)  F4.     Ch«-chiang. 

CIM  (1898)  1  man,  1  wife. 
Tientsin =T'ien-ching  F.  (Tegn-jlng)  E2.     Chih-li. 

ABCFM  (1860)  2  men,  2  wives,  1  unmarried  woman. 

ABS  1  man,  1  wife. 

BFBS  1  man,  1  wife. 

CIM  (1888)  1  man,  1  wife. 

LMS  (1861)  4  men,  (1  physician),  4  wives. 

ME  4  men,  3  wives,  4  other  women  (2  physicians). 

MNC  (1859)  2  men,  2  wives. 

NBS  1  man. 

SPGC  (1890)  1  man,  1  wife,  2  other  women, 

YMCA  (1895)  2  men,  2  wives. 
T'ing  (ting),  name  of  a  provincial  division  smaller  than  a  fu,  and  also  of  it» 

capital. 
Tong-an,  see  T'ung-an  H.,  Fu-chien. 
Tong-cheo,  see  T'ung-chou  F.,  Shen-hsi. 
T'ong-chI,  see  T'ung-chih,  Kan-su. 
Tong-Chuan,  see  Tung-ch'uan  F.,  Yiin-nan. 
Tong-hsiang,  see  Tung-hsiang  H.,  Chiang-hsi. 
T'ong-lu,  see  T'ung-lu  H.,  Che-chiang. 
Tsai  Ako  (probably  Dsi  Agou),  Morrison's  first  convert. 
Tsai-li  (Dsi-le),  name  of  a  secret  sect. 
Ts'ao  (Tsow),  title  of  the  woman  historian  Pan  Chao. 
Ts'ang  C.  (Tsang)  E2.     Chih-U. 

LMS  (1895)  3  men  (1  physician),  2  wives. 
Ts'ao-chou  F.   (Tsow-jo)   E2.     Shan-tung. 

SCM  1  man,  1  wife,  1  other  woman. 
Tsao-shih  (Dsow-sher)  D3.     Hu-pei. 

LMS  2  men  (1  physician),  1  wife. 
Tschi-chin  D4.     Kuang-tung. 

Bnl  (1898)  1  man,  1  wife. 
Tschong-hang-kang,  see  Tsong-hang-kung,  Kuang-tung. 
Tschongtshun,  see  Tsong-shun,  Kuang-tung, 
Tschu-tong-au  D5.     Kuang-tung. 

Bnl  (1891)  2  men,  1  wife. 
TsA-chou  F.  (Dsu-j6)  D2.     Shan-hsi. 

UNCONNECTED  1  man,  1  wife,  1  other  woman. 
Ts'^n  Ch'un-hsuan  (Tsun  Choon-ShuS,n),   a    famous  governor  and  states- 
man of  the  present  day. 
Tsfing  (Dsung\  a  Chinese  surname. 
Tsen-i,  see  Tsun-i  F.,  Ssu-ch'uan. 
Tsicheo,  see  Tzii  C,  Ssu-ch'uan. 
Tsimo,  see  Chi-mo  H.,  Shan-tung. 
Ts'in  (Tsin),  an  early  name  of  China. 
Ts'in-cheo,  see  Ch'in-C,  Kan-su. 
Ts'ing-kiang-p'u,  see  Ch'ing-chiang  H.,  Chiang-su. 
Tsing-ning,  see  Ching-ning  C,  Kan-su. 
Tsingtau=Ch'in-t'ou  (Chln-to)  F2.     Shan-timg. 

AEPM  (1898)  3  men  (1  physician),  1  wife. 

Bnl  (1898)  3  men,  3  wives,  2  other  women. 

PN  (1898)  1  man,  1  wife. 
Tsin-iiin,  see  Chin-yiin  H.,  Che-chiang. 
Tsong-hang-kung  D5.     Kuang-tung, 

B  (1883)  2  men,  1  wife. 
Tsong-shun  E5.     Kuang-tung. 

B  (1864)  3  men,  2  wives. 
Tso-yiln  H.,  Tso-iiin  (Tsou-yiin)  D2,    Shan-hsi. 

CIM  (1895)  2  men. 


iqS  appendix  d 


Tsung-li  Ya-m^n  (Dsoong-le  Ya-mun),  former  name  of  the  Foreign  Office. 
Tsun-i  F.  (Dsoon-e)  C4.     Kuei-chou. 

CIM  (1902)  1  man,  1  wife,  1  other  woman. 
Tu-chia-p'u  (Doo-jea-poo)  in  northwestern  Chiang-hsi. 

CM  1  man,  1  wife. 
Tu  Fu  (Doo  Foo),  name  of  a  T'ang  Dynasty  poet. 
Tung  (doong)  =  East. 
T'ung  C,  Tung-cho  (Toong)  E2.     Chih-li. 

ABCFM  (1867)  7  men  (1  physician),  6  wives,  4  other  women. 

LMS  1  man,  1  wife  (in  the  Union  College  of  ABCFM,  LMS,  PN). 
Tung-an  H.  (Doong-an)  E2.     Chih-li. 

LMS  (1897)  1  man,  1  wife. 
T'ung-an  H.  (Toong-an)  E5.     Fu-chlen. 

RCA  (1895)  2  unmarried  women. 
T'ung-chih  H.  (Toong-jer)  C2.     Kan-su. 

CIM  (1899)  1  man. 
T'ung-chou  F.  (Toong-j6)  D2,  3.     Shen-hsi. 

CIM  (1891)  3  men,  1  wife,  2  other  women. 
T'ung-ch'uan  F.,  Tung-chuan  (Toong-chooan)  C3.     Ssii-ch'uan. 

FFMA  (1900)  1  man,  1  wife,  2  other  women  (1  physician). 
Tung-ch'uan  F.  (Doong-chooan)  B4.     Yiin-nan. 

BCMS  (1892)  2  men,  2  wives. 
Tung-hsiang  H.  (Doong-sheang)  E4.     Chiang-hsi. 

CIM  (1903)  2  unmarried  women. 
Tung-kuan  H.  (Doong-gooan)  D5.     Kuang-tung. 

RM  5  men  (2  physicians),  4  wives. 
Tungkun,  see  Tung-kuan  H.,  Kuang-tung. 
T'ung-lu  H.  (Toong-loo)  F3,  4.     Ch«-chiang. 

CIM  (1900)  1  man. 
Tung-t'ing  Hu  (Doong-ting  Hoo),  name  of  China's  largest  lake. 
Tung  T'u  (Doong  Too),  a  Mohammedan  name  for  China. 
Tu-shan  C,  Tuh-shan  (Doo-shan)  C4.     Kuei-chou.  * 

CIM  (1893)  2  men,  1  wife. 
Tzu  C.  (Dsu)  C4.     Ssu-ch'uan. 

ME  2  men  (1  physician),  2  wives. 
Tz'ii-ho  (Tsu-hou)  D3.     Hu-pei. 

HSK  1  man,  1  wife. 
Tzu  Hsi  (Dzu  She),  part  of  the  Empress  Dowager's  title. 


Uan  Hsien,  see  Wan-H.,  Ssii-ch'uan. 
Uen-cheo,  see  Wen-chou  F.,  Chfi-chiang. 
Uen-cheo,  see  Yvian-chou  F.,  Chiang-hsi. 
IJen-cheo,  see  Yiian-chou  F.,  Hu-nan. 
Uh-shan,  see  Yii-shan  H.,  Chiang-hsi. 
IJ-hu,  see  Wu-hu  H.,  An-hui. 
tJin-ch'eng,  see  Yiin-ch'eng,  Shan-hsi. 
Ilin-ho,  see  Yiin-ho  H.,  Chfe-chiang. 
Uin-nan  Fu,  see  Ytin-nan  F.,  Yun-nan. 
U-kong,  see  Wu-kung  H.,  Shen-hsi. 
T^ngkung,  see  Yung-kung  m.,  Kuang-tung. 
\j-\i,  see  Yii-wu,  Shan-hsi. 


W 


Wai-wu  Pu  (Wi-woo  Boo),  the  Board  of  Foreign  Affairs. 
Wan  H.  (Wan)  C3.     Ssu-ch'uan. 

CIM  1  man,  1  wife,  1  other  woman. 
Wan-chi=:Wan-ch'ih  (Wan-cher).    An-hui. 

CA  3  unmarried  women. 
Wang  Chao  (Wang  Jow),  a  secretary  of  the  Board  of  Rites,  referred  to  in 

Chapter  VIII, 


PRONOUNCING  INDEX  199 


Wei  H.  (Wa)  E2.     Chih-U. 

SCM  1  man. 
Wei  H.  (Wa)  E2.     Shan-tung.  ^  /,     u     •  •     ^ 

PN  (1882)  7  men  (physician),  7  wives,  3  other  women  (1  physician). 
Wei-hai-wei  (Wa-hl-wa)  F2.     Shan-tung. 

CM  4  men  (1  physician),  4  wives. 

SPGC  2  men.  2  wives. 
Weihien,  Wei  Hien,  see  Wei  H.,  Shan-tung. 
Wei-hui  F.  (Wa-wha)  D2.     Ho-nan, 

FCC  4  men  (1  physician),  4  wives. 
Wfen-chou  F.,  Wenchow  (Wun-j6)  F4.     Chft-chiang. 

CIM  (1867)  2  men,  1  wife,  3  other  women. 

UMFC  (1877)  5  men  (1  physician),  4  wives. 
W6n-t6ng  H.  (Wun-dung)  F2.     Shan-tung. 

CM  1  man,   1  wife. 
Wong-buang  F4.     Fu-chien. 

CEZMS  (1893)  3  unmarried  women, 
Wu  (Woo),  a  Chinese  surname. 
Wu-ch*ang  F.  (Woo-chang)  D3.     Hu-pei. 

CA  1  man,  1  wife.  .  ^      .,  /1      u 

t    IMS   (1867)    2  men    (1   physician),    2  wives,   2    other    women    (1   pny- 

sician).  ,  /.,     i_     •  •     n 

PE  (1868)  4  men  (1  physician),  3  wives,  4  other  women  (1  physician). 

SMF  (1890)  5  men,  3  wives,  3  other  women. 

WMS  2  men,  2  wives,  3  other  women  (1  physician). 
Wu-ch*eng  (Woo-chung).     Chiang-hsi. 

CM  2  men,  2  wives,  7  other  women. 
Wu  Ching  (Woo  Jing)  =  "The  Five  Classics." 
Wu-ching-fu  (Woo-jing-foo)  E5.     Kuang-tung. 

PCE  (1865)  4  men  (1  physician),  3  wives,  3  other  women. 
Wu-chou  F.  (Woo-jo)  D5.     Kuang-hsi. 

BFBS  1  man,   1  wife. 

CA.  15  men,  6  wives,  6  other  women. 

SBC  1  man  (physician),  1  wife,  1  other  woman, 

WMS  2  men  (1  physician),  1  wife. 
Wu-hsi  H.  (Woo-she)  F3.     Chiang-su. 

PE  2  men,   1  wife. 
Wu-hsueh  (Woo-shueh)  E4.     Hu-pei. 

WMS  2  men,  2  wives. 
Wu-hu  H.  (Woo-hoo)  E3.     An-hui. 

AA  1  man,  1  wife. 

CA  5  men,  3  wives,  1  other  woman. 

CIM  (1894)  1  man,  1  wife. 

FCMS  (1890)  1  man,  1  wife,  1  other  woman. 

INDEPENDENT  1  unmarried  woman. 

ME  2  men  (1  physician),  2  wives,  1  other  woman. 
Wukinfu,  see  Wu-ching-fu,  Fu-chien. 
Wu-kung  H.  (Woo-goong)  03.     Shen-hsi. 

CIM  (1903)  2  unmarried  women. 
Wusih,  see  Wu-hsi  H.,  Chiang-su. 
Wusueh,  see  Wu-hsiieh,  Hu-pei. 
Wu-ting  F.  (Woo-ding)  E2.     Shan-tung. 

MNC  1  man,  1  wife. 


Ya-chou  F.,  Yachow  (Ya-j6)  B3.     Ssfl-chu'an. 

ABMU  (1894)  2  men  (1  physician). 
Ya-men  (ya-mun),  name  of  an  official  residence  and  office. 
Yang  (Yang). 
Yang  H.  (Yang)  C3.     Shen-hsi. 

CIM  (1896)  2  unmarried  women. 
Yang-chiang  T.  (Yang-jeang)  D5.     Kuang-tung. 

PN  (1893)  3  men  (1  physician),  2  wives. 


APPENDIX  D 


Yang-chou  F.  (YS,ng-j6)  E3.     Chiang-su. 

CIM  (1868)  2  men,  2  wives,  15  other  women  including  students. 

ME  1   man. 

SBC  (1891)  2  men  (1  physician),  2  wives. 
Yang-k*ou  (Yang-ko)  E4.     Chiang-hsi. 

CIM  (1890)  3  unmarried  women. 
Yang-tzu  Kiang=Chiang  (Yang-dsu  Geang  or  Jgang),  China's  largest  river. 
Yao  (Yow),  name  of  emperor. 

Yeh-su  Cliiao  (Y^h-soo  J§ow),  name  of  Protestants. 
Yen-ch'Ang  H.  (Y6n-chung)  DS.     Ho-nan. 

CIM  (1902)  1  man,  1  wife,  2  other  women. 
Yen-chou  F.  (Y6n-j6)  E4.     ChA-chiang. 

CIM  (1902)   1  man. 
Yen-p'ing  F.  (Ygn-ping)  E4.     Fu-chien. 

ME  1  man,  1  wife,  2  other  women. 
Yeung  Kong,  see  Yang-chiang  H.,  Kuang-tung. 
Yi  Ching  (Ye  Jing),  one  of  the  "Five  Classics." 
Yin-chia-wei  (YIn-jea-wa)  C3.     Shen-hsi. 

CIM  (1895)  3  unmarried  women. 
Yin-fa  D4.     Kuang-tung. 

Bnl  1  man,   1  wife. 
Ying  C.  (YJng)  D2.     Shan-hsi. 

CIM  (1897). 
Ying-chou  F.  (YIng-j6)  E3.     An-hui. 

CIM  (1897)  2  men. 
Ying-shan  H.  (YIng-shan)  C3.     Ssfi-ch'uan. 

CIM  (1898)  3  unmarried  women. 
Ying-Tak,  see  Ying-t6  H.,  Kuang-tung. 
Ying-t6  H,  (YIng-du)  DS.     Kuang-tung. 

SBC  2  men  (1  physician),  2  wives,  1  other  woman. 
Yo-chou  F.  (You-jo)  D4.     Hu-nan. 

Reus  3  men  (1  physician),  3  wives,  2  other  women. 
Yii  (Yu),  a  famous  early  monarch. 
Yuan  (Yiian),  a  dynastic  name. 
YUan-chou  F.  (Yu&n-jo)  D4.     Chiang-hsi. 

CIM  (1903)  1  man,  1  wife. 
YUan-chou  F.  (Yiian-jo)  C4.     Hu-nan. 

CIM  (1903)  3  men. 


YUeh-yang  H.  (Yueh-yang)  D2.     Shan-hsi. 

CIM  (1896)  1  man. 
Yu  Hsien  (Yu  Sheen),  a  governor  who  greatly  aided  the  Boxers. 


Yuin-cheo,  see  Yung-chou  F.,  Hu-nan 
YUn-ch*«ng  (Yun-chung)  D2.     Shan-hsi. 

CIM  (1888)  2  men,  1  wife. 
Yung  Ch^ng  (Yoong  Jung),  name  of  an  emperor. 
Yung-chou  F.  (Yoong-j6)  D4.     Hu-nan. 

CMS  1  man. 
Yung-ch'un  C.  (Yoong-choon)  E4.     Fu-chien. 

PCE  (1894)  2  men  (1  physician),  1  wife,  3  other  women. 
Yung-fu  H.  (Yoong-foo)  E4.     Fu-chien. 

ABCFM  1  man,  1  wife,  2  other  women  (1  physician). 
Yung-hsin  H.  (Yoong-shin)  D4.     Chiang-hsi. 

CIM  (1899)  3  unmarried  women. 
Yung-k'ang  H.  (Yoong-kang)  F4.     Ch£-chiang. 

CIM  (1882)  1  man,  1  wife,  1  other  woman. 
Yung-kung  m.  (Yoong-goong)  E6.     Kuang-tung. 

ABMU  (1892)  1  man,  1  wife. 
Yung  Lo  (Yoong  Lou),  name  of  an  emperor. 
Yung-ning  H.  (Yoong-ning)  D3.     Ho-nan. 

CIM  (1900)  2  unmarried  women. 
Yung-p'ing  F.  (Yoong-ping)  E2.     Chih-11. 

MWC  2  men  (1  physician),  2  wives. 
Yiin  Ho  (Yiin  Hoii),  name  of  the  Grand  Canal. 
Ytln-ho  H.  (Y(m-h6u)  E4.     Cht-chiang. 

cm  (1895)  3  uniaarried  women. 


PRONOUNCING  INDEX 


^^^",^0  ^T>Qril?'?.?£}-    '^^^  province  has  workers  of  the  foUowing  societies: 

BCMSt   BFBS,  CIM. 
YUn-nan  F.  (\'un-nan)  B4.     YUn-nan. 

BCMS  (1885)  1  physician,  1  wife. 

CIM  (1882)  4  men,  2  wives,  1  other  woman. 
Yii-shan  H.  (Yu-shan)  E4.     Chiang-hsi. 

CIM  (1877)  3  unmarried  women. 
YU-wu  (Yii-woo)  D2.     Shan-hsi. 

CIM  (1896)  2  men,  1  wife. 


\ 


Appendix  E— Statistics  of  Missions  in  China  for  1904 


NAMES  OF  SOCEETIES. 


HHr 


[Inil«d  Methodiflt  Free  Chur 
R'eoloyftn  Miwionary  Socie'j 


STATISTICS  ABRANOED  BY  PROVINCD 


cunru-i,"^;; 


•l\iU 


GENERAL  INDEX 


Aboriginal  tribes  of  China,  34. 
Africa  and  China  as  mission  fields, 

158. 
Agricultural  wealth  of  China,  10. 
Alphabet  lacking  in  China,  37. 
American  Presbyterian  Press,  126. 
American  Tract  Society,  125. 
Amita  Buddha,  72. 
Amusements  of  the  Chinese,  47. 
"Analects,"  64.^ 

Ancestral  worship,  54-56;  its  cost,  56. 
Anger  a  supposed  cause  of  death,  36. 
Anglo-Chinese  College  at  Malacca, 

103. 
An-hui  briefly  described,  165. 
Animals:  cyclical,  53;  worship  of,  54. 
Annals,  local,  15. 
Antiquity  of  China,  15. 
Appeal  of  1890  for  re-enforcements, 

107. 
Aquatic  resources  of  China,  10. 
Architecture,  Chinese,  39. 
Area    of   China    with    comparisons, 

3,4. 
"Arrow  War,"  100,  101. 
Arts  in  China,  39. 
Ashmore's   account  of  early  work, 

104. 
Asylums,  native,  44. 
Ath'  istic  character  of  Confucianism, 

60. 
Athletics  in  China,  13,  47. 

Bamboo  Books,  15. 

Baptism  of  infants  by  Catholics,  91. 

Beggars,  43. 

Bible  translation:  by  Nestorians, 
83;  by  John  of  Montecorvino,  85; 
by  unknown  Catholics,  96;  by 
Morrison,  96;  revised  translations, 
103,  107;  some  prominent  trans- 
lators, 116. 

Bishop,  Mrs.  I.  B.,  on  Chinese 
Christians,  154. 

"Blessings,  Five,"  66. 

Blind  taught.  111,  112. 

Boarding-schools,  113. 

Boards  laboring  in  China,  missionary. 
170-176  and  Appendix  E. 

Boards  of  Chinese  Government,  44. 

Book-lending  Societies,  117,  126. 


'  'Book  of  Changes,"  64. 

*  'Book  of  History,"  64. 

'  'Book  of  Odes,"  64. 

"Book  of  Rewards  and  Punish- 
ments," 59. 

Boxers  and  their  uprising  in  1900, 
137-143. 

Boys  desired,  42. 

Bravery  of  Chinese,  36. 

Brooks,  Rev.  S.  P.,  proto-martyr  of 
1899,  140. 

Buddha,  68. 

Buddhism  in  China,  67-73,  75. 

Burning  of  the  books,  27. 

Burns,  William,  100. 

Catholicism,  Greek,  in  China,  93,  94. 

Catholicism,  Roman,  in  China:  its 
first  entrance,  84-86;  second  en- 
trance, 86-93;  Catholic  methods, 

90,  91;  friction  with  Protestants, 

91,  92;  value  of  their  work,  92,  93; 
its  lawsuits,  132;  its  missionaries 
gain  official  rank,  132,  133;  in  the 
Siege,  140. 

Causes    of   China's    long   existence, 

27-31. 
'  'Celestials,"  significance  of  the  term, 

2,3. 
Census-taking  in  China,  32,  33. 
Central      China      Religious      Tract 

Society,  125,  176. 
Ceremonial  in  Chinese  Ufe,  36. 
Chang   Chih-tung's    "China's    Only 

Hope,"  133,  134,  147,  148. 
Chapels  and  chapel  preaching,  118, 

119. 
Characteristics  of  the  Chinese,  33-39. 
Characters  of  Chinese  history,  great, 

19-23. 
Charges  against  Christians,  135. 
Charity:  deeds  of,  44;  of  Catholics, 

90. 
Ch^-chiang  briefly  described,  162. 
Chiang-hsi  briefly  described,  165. 
Chiang-su  briefly  described,  162. 
Chih-li  briefly  described,  161. 
Children  in  proverbs,  49. 
China:  place  in  Asia,  3;  areas  with 

comparisons,  3,  4;  its  rivers,  5,  6; 

lakes,    6;     mountains,    6;  Great 


203 


204 


GENERAL  INDEX 


Plain,  6,  7;  loess  deposits,  7,  8; 
scenery,  8,  9;  climate,  9,  10;  its 
wealth.  10.  11. 

China  Inland  Mission  founded,  105. 

Ch'in  dynasty,  167. 

Chinese:  their  origin,  18;  number  and 
distribution,  32,  33;  national 
characteristics.  28;  physical  char- 
acteristics, 33-35;  emotional  char- 
acteristics, 35,  36;  intellectual 
abilities,  36-39;  home  and  clan 
life,  39-42;  their  cities  and  city 
life,  42-44;  their  government  and 
laws,  25.  30,  44,  45;  their  in- 
dustrial life.  45-47;  amusements 
and  festivals.  47-49;  their  prov- 
erbs. 49-51;  their  religions,  ch.  IV; 
Chinese  students  in  Japan,  152. 

Chinese  religions  and  the  uprising, 
133-135. 

Chinese  Tract  Society,  125.  176. 

Chinese  view  of  the  world  and  of 
Occidentals,  11,  14. 

Ch'in  Shou,  author  of  "History  of 
the  Three  States,"  21. 

Chou,  a  Chinese  ruler  and  sage,  19, 
25. 

Chou  dynasty,  17,  167. 

Christianity:  and  the  new  regime, 
132,  133;  its  educational  oppor- 
tunity, 151. 

Christians:  in  siege,  141,  142;  since 
then,  146,  147;  character  of,  154. 

Chuang-tzu,  famous  Taoist  philoso- 
pher, 20,  58,  59. 

Chu  Hsi,  or  Chu  Fu-tzu,  famous 
philosopher,  15,  20,  63.  66. 

"Churches  of  God,"  of  the  T'ai 
P'ings,  99. 

Circuit  system  of  Dr.  Nevius  and 
Mr.  Jones,  120. 

Cities  and  their  life,  42-44. 

Civilization  of  China:  in  earliest 
times,  18;  its  sources.  18.  19,  25. 

Classics,  neglect  of  study  of,  114, 131. 

Climatic  conditions  in  China,  9,  10. 

Clothing  of  Chinese,  41. 

Colleges,  113,  114. 

Colportage.  117. 

Compass.  China's  invention,  25. 

Competition  intense  in  China,  130. 

'  'Complete  Antiquarian  Re- 
searches," 21. 

Concessions  for  mines,  etc.,  128,  129. 

Conferences:  of  missionaries.  105, 
106,  107;  with  officials  on  religion, 
149. 

Confucianism:  character  of,  60-67, 
75;  and  the  crisis,  133,  134. 

Confucius,  see  K'ung  Fu-tzu. 

Consecration  needed  in  China,  160. 

Conservatism  of  Chinese,  36;  re- 
tardative,  127.  132. 

Converts:  of  Catholicism,  90,  91;  of 


Protestantism,  104;  tested  by  per- 
secution, 146,  154. 

Co-operation  in  mission  work.  124. 

Cosmogony  of  the  Chinese,  17. 

Cost  of  ancestral  worship,  56. 

Coup  d'etat  of  1898,  136. 

Daily  life  of  Chinese,  40. 

Darroch,    Mr.,    on    recent    Chinese 

publications,  152. 
Day-schools,  112,  113. 
Deaf  mutes  taught,  112. 
Death  in  China,  42;  life  after,  55. 
Defectives  aided  by  missions,  111, 

112. 
Demon  worship  of  Taoism,  60. 
DenominationaUsm  in   China,    123, 

124. 
Dependencies  of  China,  4. 
Diffusion  Society,  126,  176. 
Diplomacy  and  Catholic  missions,  90. 
Discipline  in  native  Church,  122. 
Diseases  of  China.  9,  10. 
"Doctrine  of  the  Mean,"  63,  64. 
Dragon,  China's  totem,  52,  53. 

Education:   honored  in  China,  37, 

38;  and  the  new  regime,  131,  132, 

144,  145,  147,  150,  151,  152. 
Education,  missionary:  work  under 

Morrison  and  his  associates,  1,  96, 

103;  later  work.  112-116. 
Effect  of  persecutions,  146,  147. 
Emergency  appeal  of  China,  159. 
Emperor    Kuang    Hsu:     buys    the 

Scriptures,  108;  on  Confucianism, 

134;    reforming  edicts,    135;   and 

coup  d'etat,  136,  137. 
Emperor's  relation  to  Heaven  and 

his  people.  30. 
Empress  Dowager  Tzu  Hsi,  20,  22, 

128,  131,  132,  136,  139,  142,  149, 

150. 
Encyclopedists.  21. 
English  language  desired  by  Chinese, 

114,  145,  151,  152. 
Epithets  applied  to  foreigners,  146. 
Erh  Ya,  ancient  philological  work, 

25. 
Espionage  of  missionaries,  145. 
Ethics  of  China,  29. 
Evangelistic  work:  for  individuals, 

117.    118;    in   chapels,    118,    119; 

through  itineration,  119,  120. 

Famine  relief.  111. 

Farmers  in  China,  45. 

"Fathers  and  mothers  of  the  people" 
— officials,  144. 

Feng-shui:  effect  on  mine  exploita- 
tion, 10,  46;  described,  73,  74. 

Festivals,  Chinese,  48,  49. 

Fetiches,  52. 


General  index 


i05 


Fiji   Islands   and   China  compared, 

158. 
Filial  devotion  honored,  22,  29,  36. 
Fire  Producer,  China's  Prometheus, 

17. 
•  'Five  Classics,"  64,  65. 
Food  of  Chinese,  40,  41. 
Foot-binding,  111. 
Forces  opposed  to  China's  uplifting, 

154,  155. 
Foreign     occupation     helpful     and 

harmful,  143,  144. 
Foreigners:  Chinese  view  of,  12-14; 

hated  in  1900,  135;  more  highly 

regarded  since  then,  146. 
Formosa  ceded  to  Japan,  129. 
Foundling  asylum,  112. 
"Four  Books,"  63,  64. 
France  makes  claims  on  China,  129, 

130. 
French  War  of  1883,  85,  102. 
Fu-chien  briefly  described,  162,  163. 
Fu  Hsi,  first  historic  monarch,  15, 

17. 

Geographical   ignorance  of  China's 

masses,  11,  12. 
Geomancy,  73,  74. 
German    missionaries   miu'dered   in 

1897,  129. 
Germany's  treatment  of  China,  129, 

130. 
Gibson,    Dr.,    on    development    of 

missionaries,  155,  156. 
God:  His  hand  in  China's  history,  30, 

31;  names  for,  in  China,  88,  104. 
Gods  of  Buddhism,  72.  73. 
Golden  Age  of  China,  18. 
"Golden  Rule"  of  Confucius,  66. 
Government  and  laws  of  China,  25, 

30,  44.  45. 
Grand  Canal,  23. 
Great  Britain  occupies  Wei-hai-wei, 

130. 
'  'Great  Learning,"  63. 
Great  Plain  of  China,  6,  7. 
Great  Wall  of  Chma,  23. 
Greek  Church,  132,  142. 
GriflBn,    Sir  L.,    on  China's  impor- 
tance, 156. 
Growth   of  Protestant  Christianity 

since  1904,  157. 
Guilds  and  Unions,  47. 
Gunpowder,  early  use  in  China,  25. 
Gutzlaff,  103. 

Han  dynasty,  167,  168. 
Heaven = God,  57. 
Heaven  of  the  Buddhists,  69,  70. 
Hells  of  the  Buddhists,  70. 
Heredity  as  an  aid  to  scholarship,  38. 
Heroes  deified  and  worshipped,  56. 
Heroism,  appeal  to,  in  China,  159. 
"HiUsofT'ang,"l,2. 


History  of  China:  see  chs.  II.,  VI., 
VIII.,  and  Appendix  B;  records  of 
China,  15,  16;  how  dynastic  his- 
tories are  written,  16. 

"History  of  the  Three  States."  21, 
168. 

Home  and  clan  life,  39-43,  50. 

Home,  Chinese  love  for,  28. 

Ho-nan  briefly  described,  165. 

Hospitality  of  the  Chinese,  36. 

Hsi,  Pastor,  154. 

Hsia  dynasty,  17, 167. 

Huang  Ho.  5. 

Hua  T'o.  China's  ^sculapius,  21. 

Hui-hui  Chiao,  name  explained,  79. 

Hu-nan  briefly  described.  166. 

Hung  Hsiu-ch'iian,  leader  of  T'ai 
P'ings,  98,  99. 

Hu-pei  briefly  described,  165,  166. 

Hypnotism  of  Boxers,  138. 

Ignorance  China's  enemy.  150. 
I  Ho  Ch'iian,  name  of  Boxers,  137. 
Imperial  Dictionary  of  K*ang  Hsi, 

37. 
Industrial  education,  115. 
Industrial  life  of  China,  45-47;  and 

the  crisis  of  1900,  130,  131;  new 

industries  developed,  145 
Industry,  Chinese,  35. 
Infancy  in  China,  41,  42. 
Infanticide  of  girls,  reasons  for,  41, 

42. 
Insane:  Chinese  lunatics,  44;  asylum, 

112. 
Intellectual  powers  of  the  Chinese, 

36-39. 
International    politics    and    recent 

changes,  128-130. 
Invulnerability  of  Boxers,  139. 
Iron  works  at  Han-yang,  130. 
Isolation  of  China  at  an  end,  31. 
Itineration,  119,  120. 

Japanese  education   deficient,   151, 

152. 
Jesuits   in   China:    surveys   by,    11; 

Ricci  and  his  successors,  86-89. 
Jews  in  China,  77-79. 
John,  Griffith,  on  China's  need,  153. 
John  of  Montecorvino,  84,  85. 

K'ang    Hsi,     famous     emperor    of 

present  dynasty,  20,  21,  29,  37,  66. 

88,89. 
K'ang  Yii-wei,  arch-reformer.   136. 

137. 
Kan-su  briefly  described,  164. 
Kiangsi-Hunan    Tract    Press,    125, 

176. 
Kiao-chou   occupied   by  Germany, 

129. 
Kite-flying,  48,  49. 


2o6 


GENERAL  INDEX 


Kuang-chou  Wan  occupied  by 
France.  130. 

Kuang-hsi  briefly  described,  163. 

Kuang  Hsii,  present  Emperor,  20. 
See  Emperor  Kuang  Hsii. 

Kuang-tung  briefly  described,  163. 

Kuan  Ti,  a  general,  now  deified,  23. 

Kuan  Yin,  Ciiina's  great  goddess,  72. 

Kublai  Khan,  19,  86,  169. 

Kuei-chou  briefly  described,  166. 

K'ung  Fu-tzu,  or  Confucius:  China's 
most  famous  philosopher,  20;  his 
descendants,  46;  leading  events  of 
his  life,  60-62;  his  character,  62. 
63;  literature  of  his  system,  63-65; 
his  teachings,  65,  66;  his  worship, 
67;  this  worship  an  obstacle  to 
education,  151. 


Labor  supply  of  China,  11. 
Lakes  of  China,  6. 
Landscape  gardening,  39. 
Language  of  China,  26.  28,  36,  37. 
Language  study  of  missionaries,  119. 
Lao-tzu,  founder  of  Taoist  sect,  20, 

57;  China's  Pythagoras,  58. 
Laws  of  China,  30,  41. 
Lawsuits  and  missions,  132. 
Lectures  for  literary  men,  125. 
Legendary  period  of  China,  17. 
Li,  Dr.,  author  of  the  "Herbal."  21. 
Lieh,  an  early  Taoist  writer,  58. 
Li  Hung-chang,  most  famous  viceroy 

of  our  times,  20. 
Lin.  mythological  animal,  54. 
Li  T'ai-pai,  T'ang  dynasty  poet,  21. 
Literary  work  of  missions:  Ricci,  87, 

88;  Protestant  work,  116, 117, 125. 
Literati    and    their    influence,    132; 

work  for  them,  124,  125,  144. 
Literature,  Chinese,  26,  27,  63-65. 
Literature    relating    to    China,    see 

Bibliography,  pages  vii-xiv. 
Loess  formation,  7,  8. 
Lunatics  in  China,  44. 


Macedonian  call,  China's,  158-160. 
Manchus:   described,   34;    their  rule 

disliked,  128.  139. 
Maps,  early  Chinese.  11,12. 
Margary's  murder  and  missions,  102. 
Marriage  in  China.  42,  50. 
Martyrs  of  1900,  140. 
Ma  Tuan-lin,   Chinese   antiauarian, 

21. 
Mechanics,  estimate  of,  45,  46. 
Medhurst,     103;     his     estimate     of 

Catholicism,  92,  93. 
Medical    work:    supposed    cause    of 

cures,  13;  Dr.  Parker  its  Chinese 

pioneer,  102;  its  value  and  variety. 

110.111. 
Mencius,  see  M$ng-t2u. 


Meng  brothers,  154. 

Mfing-tzu,  or  Mencius,  a  famous 
philosopher:  relation  to  Confucius, 
20;  his  writings,  64. 

Men  p'ai.  registration  tablets,  32. 

Metempsychosis  of  Chinese  Bud- 
dhism, 69. 

Methods  of  work:  Catholic,  90,  91; 
Protestant,  ch.  VIL 

Miao-tzu,  or  aboriginal  tribes,  34. 

Micius,  a  heretical  philosopher,  20. 

Middle  Kingdom,  significance  of 
phrase,  2. 

Millions,  appeal  of  China's,  158. 

Milne's  "Two  Friends,"  102;  his 
estimate  of  Catholic  work,  92. 

Mineral  wealth  of  China,  10. 

Mines,  46. 

Ming  dynasty,  169. 

Missionaries:  how  regarded,  13,  14; 
character  of  early,  104;  at  work, 
ch.  VII. ;  advice  sought  by  oflScials, 
144;  strong  missionaries  needed, 
155. 

Missions  from  Japan,  155. 

Mohammedanism,  Chinese,  79-81. 

Mongols,  34;  their  dynasty.  168,  169. 

Moral  maxims,  50,  51. 

Morrison,  Robert,  95-97. 

Mountains  of  China,  6.   , 

Museums  useful  in  missions,  125. 

Music  in  China,  39. 

Mythological  history  of  China,  16, 17. 

Names:  given  China,  1-3;  for  God 
used  by  missionaries,  88,  104. 

Napoleon's  estimate  of  China,  156. 

National  characteristics  of  China,  28. 

Native  Church,  120,  124. 

Nature  worship,  52-57. 

Neander  on  China's  importance,  156. 

Needs,  pressing,  of  China,  149-153. 

Nestorian  Christianity,  81-84. 

Nestorian  monument  at  Hsi-an  Fu, 
81,  82,  83. 

Nevius  system,  120;  his  views  on 
self-support,  122,  123. 

New  heart  needed  by  China,  153. 

New  Hebrides  and  China's  evangel- 
ization, 158. 

New  Testament  given  Empress 
Dowager,  108,  149. 

New  Year,  China's  great  day,  48. 

Nicholas,  early  Franciscan  mission- 
ary, 85. 

Nobility  in  China,  46. 

North  China  Tract  Society,  125, 176. 

Officials  in  China,  45;  after  Uprising, 

144,  145,  148,  149. 
"Opium  War,"  97,  98. 
Opportunity  in  China,  153-156. 
Outbreak,  Boxer,  137-143. 


GENERAL  INDEX 


207 


Pagodas,  71. 

Pan  Chao,   celebrated  woman  his- 
torian, 22,  23. 
Pan  Ku,  Han  dynasty  historian,  20. 
P'an  Ku,  Chinese  Creator,  17. 
Parker,  Dr.,  first  great  medical  mis- 
sionary, 102. 
Partition  of  China  agitated,  129. 
Peace  terms  in  1901,  142.  143. 
Pearly  Emperor  of  Taoists.  60. 
Peking:  early  Cathohc  work  in,  85, 

87;    during  Siege,   140-142;   after 

Siege,  143. 
People,  the  new,  145,  146. 
Persecuted  Buddhism,  68. 
Persecution  of  Protestants,  107. 
Personal  work,  117,  118. 
Phosnix,  the,  54. 
Physical  features  of  China,  4-9. 
Physicians,  famous  Chinese.  21. 
Pichon,  M.,  quoted  on  Siege.  141. 
Pictures  useful  in  mission  work,  118. 
Pill  of  Immortality  Sect,  77. 
Pi  Sheng,  inventor  of  movable  type, 

26. 
Politeness  of  Chinese,  36. 
Political  causes  of  recent  changes, 

128-130. 
Poor  aided  by  Government,  44. 
Population  of  China:  vast  numbers 

on  Great  Plain,  7;  censuses,  32,  33. 
Porcelain,  early  manufacture  of,  26. 
Port    Arthur    occupied    by    Russia, 

129,  130. 
Powers:  the,  in  China,  31;  and  peace 

terms  in  1901,  142,  143. 
Preaching  to  Chinese,  119. 
Preparation  of  heart  of  missionary, 

110. 
Presses:  mission,  116,  117,  126,  153; 

native,  152. 
Prester  John,  83. 
Priesthood  of  Buddhism,  71. 
Priests  and  Boxerism,  134,  135. 
Printing,  an  early  Chinese  invention, 

26. 
Prisons,  Chinese,  45. 
Privilege  of  working  for  China,  160. 
Progress,    stages    of   missionary,    to 

1898.  102-108. 
Pronunciation  of  Chinese  words  and 

names,  page  xvi.  and  Appendix  D. 
Protestant  work  in  China,  see  chs. 

VI.-VIII. 
Protocol  of  1901.  142,  143.  145. 
Proverbs,  Chinese.  33.  45.  47.  49-51. 
Pro\'idence  of  God  in  Siege.  141. 
Provinces  of  China  described,  161- 

166. 

Quarrels  in  China,  36. 

Railway  destroyed  in  1900, 131. 
Rainfall,  9. 


Rebellions  not  long-lived  in  China, 

29.  30. 
"Record  of  Rites,"  64. 
Reformers  of  to-day,  135-137. 
Reforms  aided  by  missionaries,  111. 
"Relations,  Five."  65. 
ReUgions  of  the  Chinese,  see  ch.  IV, 
Religious  causes  of  recent  changes, 

132-135,  138,  139;  rehgious  status 

in  1904,  147-149. 
Religious  Tract  Society  of  London, 

126. 
Residence,  right  of  foreign,  98,  100, 

101. 
Ricci,    Catholicism's    most    famous 

Chinese  missionary.  86-89. 
Riots  and  missions,  102. 
Roads  of  China,  24. 
Roberts,    I.   J.,    teaches  T'ai  P'iag 

leader,  98. 
"Rules  of  Merit  and  Transgression" 

of  Buddhism,  69. 
Russia's  treatment  of  China,    129, 

130. 

"Sacred  Edict"  of  K'ang  Hsi,  66, 

67,  68. 
Safeguards  against  national  decay, 

29. 
Salvation  of  Buddhism,  70,  71. 
San  Kuo  period,  168. 
Scenery  of  China,  8,  9. 
Scholar's  place  in  society,  45. 
Schools  of  new  order,  145. 
Sciences  in  China.  38.  39. 
Sects,  the  secret,  76,  77. 
Self-propagation  of  native  Church, 

123. 
Self-support,  native,  112,  122,  123. 
Sensuality  of  the  Chinese,  35. 
Seres,  why  used  by  Romans,  2. 
Sexes,  Chinese  view  of  relations  be- 
tween, in  foreign  society,  13. 
Shang  Ti,  IiTiperial  Ruler,  God,  57. 
Shan-hsi  briefly  described,  164,  165. 
Shan-tung    briefly    described,    161, 

162. 
Sheng-ching,    brief    description    of, 

161. 
Shen-hsi  briefly  described,  164. 
Shih  Huang-ti,  Great  Wall  builder, 

19,  59. 
Shun,  famous  early  monarch,  17,  18, 

19,  56. 
Siege  in  Peking,  140-142. 
SUk  manufacture  in  ancient  China, 

26. 
Sin,  proverbs  concerning,  50,  51. 
Sinim,  meanin,i.  2. 
"Six  Martyrs"    of   the  Reformers, 

137. 
Slavery,  domestic.  41. 
Smith,  A.  H.:  view  of  Confucianism, 

134;     the    "Six    Martyrs,"     137; 


ccS 


GENERAL  INDEX 


quoted  concerning  Christian 
scnools,  151 ;  on  China's  great  need, 
lo3;  China  as  a  mission  held,  156. 

Sociabihty  dehcient  in  the  Chinese, 
3o. 

Societies  laboring  in  China,  mission- 
ary, 170-176  and  Appendix  E. 

Society  for  the  Diffusion  of  Christian 
and  General  Knowledge,  125,  149, 
153,  176. 

Society,  grades  of  Chinese,  45,  45. 

Sociological  environment  in  China, 
39-45. 

Soldiers,  estimate  of,  46. 

Sovereigns,  the  three  great,  17. 

Spirits  of  the  dead.  73. 

Sports  of  foreigners,  how  regarded, 
12,  13. 

"Spring  and  Autumn  Annals,"  16, 
64.  65. 

Ssu-ch'uan  briefly  described,  163, 
164. 

Ssii-ma  Ch'ien,  China's  Herodotus, 
20. 

Psu-ma  Kuang,  Sung  dynasty  his- 
torian, 21. 

Station  classes,  115. 

Stations  occupied  by  missionaries. 
Appendix  D. 

Statistics:  of  CathoUcs.  r-3:  of 
Protestants  in  1877,  105;  in  1890, 
106, 107;  in  1904,  inferences  there- 
from, 156-158;  detailed,  Appendix 
E. 

Students:  the  Chinese  as,  37,  38; 
native  Adew  of  scholars,  45; 
proverbs  relating  to,  49,  50. 

Study  of  the  people  necessary,  110. 

Suffering  Chinese,  appeal  of,  159. 

Suicide  honorable  in  women,  22. 

Sunday-schools,  121. 

Sung  dynasty,  168. 

Survivals  of  China's  past,  23-27. 

Suspension  bridges,  24. 

Su  Tung-p'o,  Sung  dynasty  poet,  21. 

Syndicate,  Western,  and  the  crisis  of 
1900, 128,  129. 

Ta  Ch'ing  Kuo,  meaning,  2;  the 
dynastv.  169. 

T'ai  Chi,  or  "Great  Extreme,"  17. 

T'ai  P'ing  Rebellion,  98.  99. 

T'ai  Tsung,  one  of  China's  most 
famous  monarchs,  19,  82. 

T'ang  dynasty,  1,  19,  38,  82,  168. 

T'ang,  founder  of  the  Shang  dy- 
nastv, 18. 

Taoism.  57-60.  75. 

Tao-te  Ching,  Taoism's  Bible.  57, 58. 

Taxation  and  census  figures,  32. 

Tea  a  help  to  temperance,  35. 

Teacher's  salary,  47. 

Teaching  ability  of  Chinese  deficient, 
150. 


Temperance  of  the  Chinese.  35. 

Temperatures  in  China,  9. 

Temples:  of  Buddhism,  71;  to  be- 
come schools,  134,  135. 

Tenement  problem  in  China,  43. 

"Term  question,"  88,  104. 

Theatrical  exhibitions  and  the 
Crisis,  133. 

Theological  schools,  115. 

Thieves,  43. 

Tibetans,  33,  34. 

Tientsin  Massacre,  101. 

Tools  vs.  machines,  130. 

Totem  worship,  52,  53. 

Tract  Societies,  important  work  of, 
108,  125, 126,  153. 

Trade  guilds,  47. 

Tradesmen,  estimate  of,  46. 

Treaty  of  1860,  its  importance,  98. 

Tsai  Ako,  first  Protestant  convert, 
97. 

Tsai-U,  a  secret  sect,  76. 

Ts'ao  Ts'ao,  famous  general  of  the 
Three  Kingdoms,  23. 

Tsen  Ch'un-hsiian's  view  of  mission- 
aries, 148. 

Tseng,  disciple  of  Confucius,  63. 

Tu  Fu,  T'ang  dynasty  poet,  21. 

T'ung  Chou  men  lead  mob  to  destroy 
railway,  131. 

Tung-t'ing  Lake,  6. 

Type,  Pi  invents  movable,  117. 

Tzu  Hsi,  etc..  Empress  Dowager's 
title,  22. 

Verbiest,  famous  Catholic  mission- 
ary, 89. 

Versatihtj'  of  the  missionary,  119. 

Villages  of  China,  40;  work  of 
missionaries  in,  119,  120. 

Wade's    system    of    Romanization, 

page  xvi. 
Wages  of  the  masses,  46,  47. 
Wai-wu  Pu,  44. 
Walled  cities  of  China,  8,  40. 
Wang    Chao    and    the    coup   d'etat, 

136. 
War:  and  Chinese  missions,  97-102; 

with  Japan,  127,  128,  129. 
Warriors  famous  in  China,  23. 
Wealth,  God  of,  60. 
Wealth  of  China:   agricultural,   10; 

aquatic,    10;    mineral,    10;    labor 

supply,  11;  result  upon  China  of 

its  wealth,  28,  29. 
Wen,  a  Chinese  ruler  and  sage,  19. 
Western  science  coming  in,  131. 
Widowhood  honored,  22. 
Wives,  estimate  of,  50. 
Woman's  work:   fully  inaugurated, 

105,    109;    medical    women.    111; 

work  for  women  of  higher  class, 

118. 


GENERAL  INDEX 


2CX, 


Women  of  China,  illustrious,  21-23. 
Worship  of  Buddhism,  71,  72. 
Writing,  Chinese,  37. 
Wu,  a  Chinese  ruler  and  sage,  19. 
Wu,  Empress,  famous  ruler  of  sev- 
enth century,  19. 

Xavier's  death  on  China's  shores,  86. 

Yang-tzii,  5,  6,  7. 

Yao,  famous  early  monarch,  17,  18, 
19. 


Young  Men's  Christian  Association: 
conferences,  108;  value  of  work, 
121;  its  Uterati  work,  144. 

Young  People's  Societies,  107,  108, 
121. 

Yii,  an  early  monarch  and  founder  of 
empire,  17,  19,  24,  167. 

Yiian  dynasty,  19,  168,  169. 

Yung  Lo,  emperor  of  last  dynasty, 
21. 

Yung  Wing's  Educational  Com- 
mission, 101. 

Yiin-nan  briefly  described,  163. 


/'■ © 


I 


Date  Due 

i 

f 

Photomount 

Pamphlet 

Binder 

Gaylord  Bros.,  Inc. 

Makers 
Syracuse,  N.  Y, 

?AT,  JAN  21,  1908 


